Events, Verisoph

1925 Locarno agreements settle postwar territorial disputes ai_extracted 1 cit. no story His financial diplomacy spawned another foreign policy initiative: the 1925 Locarno agreements, which resolved territorial disputes outstanding since World War I and helped... ●●

1925 Abdul Aziz unites the Arabian peninsula ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After World War I, Abdul Aziz led the al-Sauds to unite the Arabian peninsula tribes through military and political skill. ●●

1925 Balfour opens the Hebrew University of Jerusalem ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On April 1, 1925, Lord Arthur Balfour presided over the opening ceremonies for the Hebrew University, a moving event in a natural amphitheater. ●●

1925 Bernays orchestrates bacon breakfast campaign for Beechnut Packing Company ai_extracted 2 cit. Bernays creates a propaganda campaign using physician endorsements to promote eating bacon as a wholesome breakfast, establishing fake doctor testimonials as propaganda technique. ●●

1925 Locarno Treaties signed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Locarno in effect confirmed both results and laid the basis for Germany’s ultimate assault on the Eastern settlement. Locarno, hailed in 1925 as turni ●●

c. 1925 The coast sidelined behind the highlands 5 cit. Colonial investment flowed to the settler-farmed White Highlands and the railway line to Nairobi and the lake, while the coast became mainly a port corridor rather than a place to develop. Mombasa handled the country's trade, but the wealth passed through to the interior rather than staying on the coast. The region slipped from being East Africa's commercial heart to an economic backwater serving the highlands. economy / society ●●

1925 IG Farben becomes the industrial engine of the Reich 5 cit. The chemical giant IG Farben, formed in 1925 from firms including BASF, Bayer, and Hoechst, grew into a pillar of the German war economy, producing synthetic fuel and rubber the military needed. It later built a plant at Auschwitz that used concentration-camp slave labor. After the war its executives were tried at Nuremberg and the combine was broken up. economy / technology / war ●●●●

c. 1925 Kipsigis and Kalenjin grazing land is alienated for European settlement 4 cit. Through the 1920s and 1930s the colonial government alienated large blocks of Kipsigis and neighbouring Kalenjin grazing and farming land in the Kericho and Sotik highlands. The land was handed to European settlers as part of the White Highlands, where Africans could not own farms. Communities that had grazed and farmed the highlands were pushed into smaller reserves. politics / society ●●●

c. 1925 Settlers push the Sabaot off the Trans-Nzoia plains 2 cit. In the 1920s and 1930s the colonial government took much of the arable lowland around Trans-Nzoia for white settler farms. Many Sabaot were pushed off the plains and confined to the higher, more crowded slopes of Mount Elgon. This loss of good farmland is the root of land grievances that shaped the community's politics for the rest of the century. economy / politics ●●

1926 Soviet forced industrialization, 1926-1940 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley argues that the Soviet Union's rapid industrialization from 1926 to 1940 was achieved by ruthless oppression of the peasantry, costing millions of lives. ●●

1926 British General Strike of 1926 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The clash over the deflationary policy came to a head in the General Strike. The unions lost, but they prevented the government from cutting costs far enough to restore business profits and the export trade. ●●

1926 Imperial Conference of 1926 and the Balfour Declaration ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley calls the 1926 Imperial Conference one of the most important of the postwar period; it produced the Balfour Declaration on Dominion status. The Milner Group again supplied three of five UK delegates. ●●

1926 Jan Christian Smuts writes Holism and Evolution ai_extracted 1 cit. no story South African statesman Jan Christian Smuts wrote the treatise Holism and Evolution in 1926. Wood ties its 'theory of the whole' to later regionalism and technocratic thinking. ●●

1926 France settles its war debts at 40 cents on the dollar ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After watching Britain strike a poor bargain, France waited and eventually settled its war debts in 1926 at 40 cents on the dollar. The arrangement was not ratified by the National Assembly until 1929. ●●

1926 British general strike of 1926 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The overvalued pound hammered coal and other export industries. In 1926 attempts to cut costs led to a long, bitter coal strike that boiled over in May 1926 into a countrywide ten-day general strike. ●●

1926 France and the United States settle war debts ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In April 1926 France and the United States finally reached a war-debt settlement at 40 cents on the dollar. The budget was balanced, yet the franc kept falling, reaching over 30 to the dollar by May. ●●

1926 Caillaux returns for a fifth term and installs Moreau ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 15, 1926, Joseph Caillaux returned as finance minister for the fifth time. He finally fired Governor Robineau and cleaned house at the Banque de France, inviting Émile Moreau to take over. ●●

1926 Émile Moreau becomes governor of the Banque de France ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On June 24, 1926, Émile Moreau assumed the governorship of the Banque de France with the franc at 35 to the dollar. He privately feared he might become the liquidator of a national bankruptcy. ●●

1926 French war-mutilated veterans protest American war debts ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 11, 1926, twenty thousand maimed French war veterans marched in silent protest up the Champs-Élysées to the square overlooking the U.S. embassy, laying a wreath at the statue of George Washington. ●●

1926 Poincaré forms a national unity government ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 21, 1926, Raymond Poincaré was asked to form a ministry and within two days announced a national unity government spanning the political spectrum. His prestige alone began to reassure investors. ●●

1926 Norman's first meeting with Moreau ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On July 29, 1926, Norman met the Banque de France's new leadership at Moreau's office. The encounter got off on the wrong foot, with Norman patronizing and insistent on speaking English, seeding lasting mutual distrust. ●●

1926 Banque de France begins pegging the franc ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 21, 1926, the Banque de France began buying foreign currency and selling francs to stop the franc rising above 25 to the dollar. With Poincaré's blessing, Moreau held this peg for two years. ●●

1926 The Florida real estate bubble bursts ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Florida land boom of the mid-1920s collapsed under its own weight in 1926, helped by a devastating hurricane. There was much local disruption but only minor impact on the national economy. ●●

1926 Central banks assemble a loan to stabilize the Polish zloty ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In late 1926 a consortium of central banks, including the Fed, Bank of England, Reichsbank, and now the Banque de France, arranged a package to stabilize the Polish zloty. France objected to Norman muscling into its Eastern European sphere. ●●

1926 Reza Shah founds the Pahlavi dynasty ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Reza Khan formally assumes the throne as Reza Shah and establishes the Pahlavi dynasty to replace the declining Qajar line. ●●

1926 Schrodinger publishes wave theory of matter ai_extracted 1 cit. no story an articulate, cultured Viennese theoretical physicist named Erwin Schrödinger published a wave theory of matter demonstrating that matter at the atomic level behaves as if it consists of waves. ●●

1926 German military adopts the Enigma machine ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The German navy changed its mind and adopted a modified version of the Enigma machine in 1926, followed by the German army in 1928, and the German air ●●

1926 Firestone loan brings Liberia under US financial control ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A new loan negotiated with the Firestone Corporation of America let Liberia finally pay off the principal and interest on its old 1912 loan, replacing British with American financial control. ●●

1926 Imperial Chemical Industries formed by merger ai_extracted 1 cit. no story British Dyestuffs Corporation and other chemical firms were knit together to form Imperial Chemical Industries, a company whose issued capital Nkrumah notes later exceeded the budgets of most African states. ●●

c. 1926 Brooke Bond and James Finlay plant the great Kericho tea estates 5 cit. On the alienated highlands, companies such as Brooke Bond and James Finlay laid out large tea plantations from the mid 1920s onward. Brooke Bond later passed to Unilever, and the estates grew into one of the biggest tea complexes in Africa. They were worked by resident labourers and by migrants drawn from the surrounding districts. economy ●●●

1926 The Kitale railway branch opens the settler granary 4 cit. The Kitale branch of the Kenya-Uganda railway connected the Trans-Nzoia farms to the wider transport network. In 1925 Hansard listed the Kitale (Trans-Nzoia) branch as 43.7 miles with an estimated cost of GBP 143,067. The line made bulk grain farming more viable and helped turn Kitale into the railhead and market town of the North Rift. economy / technology ●●●●

1927 Japanese banking crisis of 1927 ai_extracted 1 cit. Japan suffered a banking crisis in 1927, partly triggered by the aftereffects of the 1923 Great Kanto earthquake. ●●●

2 May 1927 Buck v. Bell upholds forced sterilization 2 cit. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled 8 to 1 that states could forcibly sterilize people deemed unfit, with Justice Holmes writing "three generations of imbeciles are enough." The decision led to tens of thousands of sterilizations and was cited by Nazi defendants at Nuremberg. politics / science ●●●

1927 Soviet policy shifts to 'Communism in a single country' (1927) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1927 Soviet policy shifted from world revolution to 'Communism in a single country' and growing support for collective security, a change reaching its peak in the Popular Front of 1935-1937. ●●

1927 Central bankers divert gold purchases to New York ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Because London's gold reserves were inadequate, a meeting of central bankers in New York decided in July 1927 that French and German gold purchases should be diverted from London to New York. ●●

1927 Russia turns toward Stalinism after 1927 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley marks the new direction Russia took after 1927, which he calls Stalinism, as a product of Stalin's ambitions, a return to older Russian despotic traditions, and the theory of Socialism in a single country. ●●

1927 Osthilfe subsidy scheme organized ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On December 21, 1927, a joint session of the Reich and Prussian governments under Hindenburg organized the Osthilfe (Eastern Help) program. It became a sink of corruption subsidizing bankrupt Junker estates. ●●

1927 Japanese financial panic of 1927 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1927 the efforts of Mitsui and Mitsubishi to smash a smaller competitor, the Suzuki Company of Kobe, precipitated a financial panic that closed most of the banks in Japan. ●●

1927 Houtermans proposes solar hydrogen fusion ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1927 the Austrian physicist Fritz Houtermans suggested that the sun's energy came from the fusion of hydrogen atoms into helium, an early idea behind the hydrogen bomb. ●●

1927 RIIA journal opens to public subscription (Jan 1927) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Institute's journal was restricted to members until January 1927, when it opened to public subscription and later took the name International Affairs. Quigley notes its first issue was anonymous like The Round Table. ●●

1927 Irwin's memorandum lecturing the Indian Princes (14 June 1927) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley says Irwin's memorandum to the Indian Princes, dated 14 June 1927, could have been written by the Kindergarten, preaching the reign of law, devolution and the duty of princes to win them over to federation. ●●

1927 Arthur Gates publishes The Improvement of Reading ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto states that in 1927 Columbia Teachers College professor Arthur Gates wrote The Improvement of Reading, marshaling studies he says wrongly claimed sight reading was superior to phonics. ●●

1927 Churchill concludes the return to gold was a misjudgment ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1927 Churchill had realized that returning to gold at the old prewar rate had been a mistake, later calling it the biggest blunder of his life. He blamed the bad advice of Norman and the Treasury experts. ●●

1927 Moreau prevails and rebuilds French reserves ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By mid-1927 Moreau had won the internal battle against the diehard regents. French capital that had fled abroad washed back home, letting the Banque accumulate a foreign exchange war chest of $500 million, mostly in pounds. ●●

1927 General Motors overtakes U.S. Steel ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Between 1925 and 1927 General Motors' profits rose almost two and a half times. Earning nearly $250 million a year, it overtook U.S. Steel to become the most profitable company in America. ●●

1927 Nazi storm troopers rampage in Berlin ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On March 21, 1927, six hundred Nazi SA storm troopers beat up Communists in eastern Berlin and marched into the city center attacking anyone who looked Jewish. City authorities banned Nazi activity in Berlin for a year. ●●

1927 Schacht triggers Germany's 'Black Friday' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story On May 12, 1927, Schacht's Reichsbank ordered every German bank to cut stock-trading loans by 25 percent. The next day, dubbed Black Friday, share prices fell over 10 percent, damaging business confidence without curbing foreign borrowing. ●●

1927 France orders its sterling balances converted to gold ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In June 1927, without consulting the British, the Banque de France ordered $100 million of its sterling balances converted into gold. Combined with repaying a 1916 loan, this threatened to drain nearly $200 million of gold from the Bank of England. ●●

1927 Strong invites the central bankers to America ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the summer of 1927, weak from illness, Strong invited Norman, Schacht, and Moreau to the United States rather than travel to Europe. It was to be the first meeting of all four major central banks. ●●

1927 The four great central banks convene at the New York Fed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The world's four leading central banks first convened on the twelfth floor of the New York Federal Reserve, built as a Florentine palazzo. Moreau sent his deputy Charles Rist in his place. ●●

1927 Secret central bankers' conclave on Long Island ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In July 1927 the four central bankers met in secret for five days at Ogden Mills's Long Island estate. The discussions focused on strengthening Europe's gold reserves and encouraging gold to flow from the United States to Europe. ●●

1927 The Fed cuts rates, the 'petit coup de whisky' ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Days after the Long Island meeting, the New York Fed and eight other reserve banks cut rates by 0.5 percent to 3.5 percent. The move split the system and, in August 1927, sparked the runaway phase of the stock market rally. ●●

1927 Gilbert calls for a final reparations settlement ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In his 1927 report released that December, reparations agent-general Parker Gilbert argued Germany should take control of its own economy without foreign supervision. He pushed for a definitive settlement of what Germany owed. ●●

1927 McGarrah named chairman of the New York Fed ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In February 1927, McGarrah was appointed chairman of the New York Fed. Unlike Mitchell, Wiggin cautioned against excess in the mid-1920s, even while engaging in its spoils. Like... ●●

1927 Coolidge announces he will not seek reelection ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Hoover’s Prep for President and Bankers’ Support Coolidge shocked the nation when he announced in early August 1927, while on summer break in South Dakota, that he would not seek... ●●

1927 Morgan partners fund Lindbergh's transatlantic flight ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Morgan partners paid for Charles Lindbergh's historic nonstop flight to Paris aboard The Spirit of St. Louis in 1927. Lindbergh contributed $2,000 to supplement the funds provided by various investors coordinated through the House of Morgan. ●●

1927 Henry Ford renounces the Protocols as forgeries ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1927, Felix, Louis Marshall, and the American Jewish Committee had convinced Henry Ford that the Protocols of the Elders of Zion were patent forgeries. ●●

1927 First Nazi party rally at Nuremberg ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Nazis held their first Nuremberg party rally in 1927. ●●

1927 More Jews leave Palestine than arrive ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1927, the Zionist enterprise itself seemed in peril as more Jews left Palestine than arrived. ●●

1927 Inter-Allied Military Control Commission abolished ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Inter-Allied Military Control Commission, which had been created to supervise German disarmament, was abolished in 1927, and its functions were tu ●●

1927 Solvay Conference debates quantum mechanics ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In October 1927, the first Solvay Conference in Brussels brought together leading physicists including Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, Dirac, and Pauli to debate quantum mechanics. Einstein spent days proposing thought experiments to challenge the uncertainty principle. ●●

1927 First World Population Conference in Geneva ai_extracted 2 cit. no story First World Population Conference held in Geneva on August 29, organized by Margaret Sanger and Raymond Pearl ●●

1927 Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology opens ai_extracted 1 cit. no story r biotype. The future of human genetics lies largely in a study of these activities…. Of these [studies], one of the most significant is that of twin- production.”103 The Eugenical News report on the 1927 grand opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity and Eugenics poi ●●

1927 Supreme Court upholds sterilization in Buck v. Bell ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Duke Legal Aid Clinic. They followed Virginia’s law as a model. Virginia gave rise to the infamous Buck v. Bell case, a collusive lawsuit ultimately sanctified as the law of the land by the notorious 1927 Supreme Court ruling. Oliver Wendell Holmes, for the majority, wrote, “It is better for all the ●●

1927 Sukarno publishes Nationalism, Islam, and Marxism ai_extracted 1 cit. no story One of the most important forces behind the idea of Indonesia was the country’s first postindependence president, Sukarno, who published a short pamphlet in 1927 titled Nationalism, Islam, and Marxism. ●●

c. 1927 Kenya-Uganda Railway headquarters completed in Nairobi 6 cit. The headquarters building of the Kenya and Uganda Railways was completed in Nairobi in the 1920s, designed by the noted imperial architect Herbert Baker, who was himself a prominent Freemason and designed Masonic buildings elsewhere in the empire, including in South Africa. There is no documented evidence that this particular Nairobi building was designed with Masonic symbolism; the connection cited in popular accounts is Baker's personal Masonic membership and his broader body of imperial architectural work, not a sourced design brief for the building itself. economy / technology ●

c. 1927 Eugen Fischer appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology 2 cit. Eugen Fischer becomes founding director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Anthropology, Human Heredity, and Eugenics in Berlin, the leading German institution for race science research. He goes on to teach and influence a generation of Nazi-era physicians and, in 1933, becomes rector of the University of Berlin, carrying his South-West Africa research directly into the scientific apparatus of the Third Reich. politics / science ●●

21 April 1927 Italy adopts the Charter of Labour 1 cit. The Fascist Grand Council proclaims the Charter of Labour, setting out the doctrine of the corporate state in which state-run corporations were meant to organize employers and workers together. In practice the system subordinated labor to the regime and gave employers the upper hand, and critics saw the corporatist promise as largely propaganda. economy / politics ●●●

24 June 1927 Codreanu founds the Legion of the Archangel Michael 1 cit. Corneliu Zelea Codreanu founds the Legion of the Archangel Michael, whose paramilitary wing becomes known as the Iron Guard. Blending Orthodox mysticism with violent antisemitism and ultranationalism, it grows into one of interwar Europe's largest fascist movements. politics / religion ●●

c. 1927 Emigrates to the United States and joins the Communist Party 1 cit. Having left Trinidad for the United States in 1924, Nurse studied at Fisk University and then Howard University. Around 1927 he joined the Communist Party of the USA, drawn by its stance against racism and empire. It was the start of a decade inside the international communist movement. politics / society ●●

c. 1927 Trans-Nzoia settlers turn to maize monoculture 2 cit. By the mid-1920s, after the wartime flax boom collapsed and flax prices could no longer carry settler farms, many Europeans in Trans-Nzoia concentrated on maize. That is what "flax prices failed" means: a crop once pushed as profitable stopped paying well enough, so settlers shifted to bulk grain. Kitale became a highland grain economy dependent on alienated land, resident African labour, transport and producer cooperatives. economy / society ●●●●

1928 Penicillin and antibiotics 1 cit. Alexander Fleming noticed that a mold killed bacteria, leading to penicillin, the first true antibiotic. Antibiotics made once fatal infections curable and transformed medicine. science ●●●●●

1928 Bernays publishes Propaganda 1 cit. Edward Bernays published Propaganda in 1928, arguing that skilled manipulation of public opinion was a normal part of democratic society. Drawing on his uncle Sigmund Freud's ideas, he helped found the modern public relations industry. politics / society ●●●●

1928 Manly P. Hall publishes The Secret Teachings of All Ages 1 cit. Manly P. Hall released his large illustrated survey of Western esoteric traditions, The Secret Teachings of All Ages, in 1928. It presents Masonic symbolism alongside alchemy, Kabbalah, and mystery religions, and became a popular esoteric reference. culture / religion ●●●

1928 Soviet Five-Year Plans begin, 1928 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley cites the opening of the Soviet Five-Year Plans in 1928 as the starkest case of a nation choosing rural oppression over foreign indebtedness to fund industrialization. ●●

1928 Kellogg-Briand Pact renounces war (1928) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley calls the Kellogg-Briand Pact of 1928 a weak and hypocritical document that advanced the destruction of international law by blurring the legal distinction between war and peace. ●●

1928 Secret Anglo-French naval agreement exposed by Hearst (1928) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A secret July 1928 Anglo-French agreement to block disarmament was leaked by French officials to William Randolph Hearst and published, prompting France to deport his reporter and Hearst himself. ●●

1928 First Soviet Five-Year Plan begins ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Stalin's program of forced heavy industrialization was organized in a series of Five-Year Plans, the first covering 1928-1932. Its chief elements were the collectivization of agriculture and a basic heavy-industry system. ●●

1928 World oil cartel formed by 1928 tripartite agreement ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley traces the world oil cartel to a tripartite agreement signed September 17, 1928 by Royal Dutch-Shell, Anglo-Iranian, and Standard Oil. The signers agreed to manage world oil prices and store surplus oil to protect the fixed price level. ●●

1928 International Studies Conferences begin, Berlin (1928) ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From 1928, starting at Berlin, Zimmern organized annual International Studies Conferences under the League's Institute of Intellectual Cooperation. Quigley says Milner Group influence ran through them. ●●

1928 A Sociological Philosophy of Education published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto quotes the 1928 volume A Sociological Philosophy of Education, which claimed it was the business of teachers to run not merely schools but the world. ●●

1928 Bernays publishes Crystallizing Public Opinion ai_extracted 1 cit. Gatto notes that in 1928 Edward L. Bernays told readers of his book Crystallizing Public Opinion that invisible power controlled American life and that democracy was a front for wire-pulling. ●●

1928 Edward Bernays publishes two propaganda books ai_extracted 1 cit. Gatto notes that in 1928 Edward Bernays published Crystallizing Public Opinion and Propaganda, arguing language could manufacture reality. Gatto ties Bernays's ideas to the manipulation techniques adopted by schools. ●●

1928 The Fed reverses course and raises rates ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With the market soaring and broker loans hitting a record $4.4 billion, Strong recognized the 1927 cut might have been a mistake. In February 1928 the Fed reversed course, raising rates from 3.5 to 5 percent over three months. ●●

1928 Benjamin Strong sails for Europe to resign ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Exhausted and gravely ill, the powerful New York Fed governor Benjamin Strong sailed to Europe in May 1928 having already resolved to resign. He had led U.S. monetary policy through the 1920s. ●●

1928 Wall Street bubble breaks free of economic reality ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the early summer of 1928, with the Dow near 200, stock prices detached from underlying earnings and began a speculative climb. Over the next fifteen months the Dow nearly doubled to 380. ●●

1928 Fed raises rates to check speculation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Recognizing that its 1927 easing had been a mistake, the Federal Reserve raised its discount rate from 3.5 percent in February 1928 to 5 percent by July 1928 to curb the stock boom. The market kept rising anyway. ●●

1928 Marthe Hanau arrested in Paris financial scandal ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Marthe Hanau, who ran a Paris stock tip sheet promoting near-worthless companies, was arrested in December 1928 and forced into bankruptcy owing $25 million. Her fraud gripped France as the Young Conference convened. ●●

1928 Soviet grain requisition crisis begins ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1928, the Soviet state implemented official requisition policy that placed it on a collision course with the peasantry. The mandated delivery price was one-fifth of the market price, and the regime resorted to police methods as peasant resistance stiffened. ●●

1928 US experts plan giant Soviet mechanized wheat farm ai_extracted 1 cit. no story American agricultural experts Wilson, Ware, and Riggin planned a giant 500,000-acre mechanized wheat farm for the Soviet Union in two weeks in a Chicago hotel room. The plan embodied abstract high-modernist principles disconnected from local conditions. ●●

1928 Arthur Ponsonby publishes Falsehood in Wartime ai_extracted 1 cit. British MP Arthur Ponsonby publishes Falsehood in WarTime, a direct refutation of Allied propaganda lies during World War One, exposing government deception. ●●

1928 International population science organization founded ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Scientists and statisticians from multiple continents form international professional organization to promote population science ●●

1928 Carnegie's Jamaica Race-Crossing Project ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ets, and deport them. Ironically, IBM’s Nazi technology was actually first tested by the company in a pilot program in Jamaica in 1928, five years before the Hitler regime. The Carnegie Institution’s 1928 Jamaica Race-Crossing Project introduced the race classification card that evolved into the SS ●●

1928 American lending to Germany begins to fall ai_extracted 1 cit. no story From 1928 onwards long-term American lending to Germany began tofall, as rumours swirled about the future of reparations and interest rates in the United States rose.” Germany continued to borrow in 1929 and to sell shares in German firms to foreigne ●●

1928 Bernays defines the invisible government contested ai_extracted 2 cit. In the opening of Propaganda, Bernays argues that the deliberate manipulation of mass opinion is a normal and necessary part of democratic society. He claims that those who do this work form an unseen ruling power he calls the invisible government. ●●●

1928 Bernays' definition of modern propaganda ai_extracted 1 cit. Bernays offers his own working definition of the new propaganda. He frames it not as a single message but as an ongoing effort to shape events and thereby the public's relationship to an idea, group, or enterprise. ●●

1928 Bernays names the public relations counsel ai_extracted 1 cit. Bernays describes how the growing complexity of society concentrated propaganda work in a new kind of specialist. He gives that specialist the title of public relations counsel, the self-description he used for his own trade. ●●

1928 Bernays applies Freudian psychology to selling ai_extracted 1 cit. Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, argues that people act on hidden motives they will not admit to themselves. He tells the propagandist to work from these true motives rather than the reasons people give, treating a purchase as a symbol of some suppressed desire. ●●

1928 Selling pianos through the music room ai_extracted 1 cit. Bernays gives the piano as his model of indirect selling. Instead of promoting pianos, the propagandist makes the music room fashionable, so that owning one leads people to want a piano as if it were their own idea. ●●

1928 The NAACP dramatizes its anti-lynching campaign ai_extracted 1 cit. Bernays offers a social-service example in which the NAACP fought lynching and discrimination in the South. As a matter of technique it staged an annual convention, held in Atlanta, to concentrate national attention on the problem. ●●