Events, Verisoph

1560 War (1560) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story in Cipolla (ed.), Fontana Economic History of Europe, vol. 2, pp. 527–89. 19. NCMH, vol. 1, ch. 7; R. A. Kann, A History of the Habsburg Empire 1526–1918 (Berkeley/Los Angeles/Lo ●●

1560 Cremona (1560) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story written about 1460), Cremona (1560) f. 20c. 38 Eleazar’s 3:22" 125m (published under the wrong title ●●

1562 to April 1598 French Wars of Religion 0 cit. Catholics and Huguenots fight eight civil wars punctuated by massacres, including St. Bartholomew's Day in 1572. The Edict of Nantes finally grants Protestants limited toleration. religion / war ●●●●

1562 English Homily on Obedience set down in 1562 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto describes the Anglican Homily on Obedience, established by English church doctrine in the Tudor state of 1562, which likened the fixed English social order to the order of Heaven. ●●

1563 to 1570 Northern Seven Years' War wikidata 0 cit. no story 16th-century war fought in Scandinavia ●●●●

1563 Bruno enters the Dominican Order in Naples ai_extracted 2 cit. no story Bruno entered the Dominican Order and became an inmate of the great Dominican convent in Naples. ●●

1564 John Dee publishes Monas Hieroglyphica ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Dee publishes Monas hieroglyphica in Antwerp, presenting a unified cabalist, alchemical, and mathematical formula. ●●

1564 ; see also Coptic Church; Ethiopia; Monophysite Controversy; Syriac Orthodox Church Michelangelo rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ; see also Coptic Church; Ethiopia; Monophysite Controversy; Syriac Orthodox Church Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475-1564) Middle East Map 5 (177), see also Arabia; Holy Land; Iraq; Israel; Judaea; Lebanon; Mesopotamia; Palestine; Parthian Empire; Persi ●●

23 January 1565 Fall of the Vijayanagara Empire 0 cit. At the Battle of Talikota on 23 January 1565 a coalition of Deccan sultanates defeated Vijayanagara and killed its regent. The capital was sacked and destroyed, and the empire never recovered. politics / war ●●●

1565 Manila galleon links Asia to the Americas 0 cit. Andres de Urdaneta charted a return route across the Pacific, letting galleons carry American silver to Manila and Chinese silk and porcelain back to Acapulco. The route ran for 250 years and created the first sustained global trade circuit. economy / exploration ●●●●●

1565 The Manila galleon trade begins 0 cit. Spain opened a regular galleon route linking Manila to Acapulco, exchanging American silver for Chinese silk and porcelain. It created the first sustained trade link across the Pacific and tied Asia into the colonial economy. economy / exploration ●●●

c. 1565 Bruegel paints the Northern Renaissance in the Low Countries 0 cit. Pieter Bruegel the Elder paints sweeping scenes of peasant life and the changing seasons, turning ordinary people into the subject of great art. His work marks the late flowering of the Renaissance in the north as the movement spread and matured across Europe. culture / society ●●

1565 Joseph Karo codifies Jewish law in Safed 0 cit. In the Galilean town of Safed, an Ottoman center of Jewish mysticism, the Sephardic scholar Joseph Karo published the Shulhan Arukh, a clear code of Jewish law that reflected Sephardic practice. With later Ashkenazi glosses it became the standard legal reference for Jews everywhere. Sephardim to this day follow Karo's rulings. culture / religion ●●●

1565 Joseph Karo publishes the Shulchan Aruch 0 cit. Joseph Karo distilled centuries of legal debate into the Shulchan Aruch, the Set Table, which with later glosses became the standard code of Jewish law still used today. Karo himself was also a mystic who recorded visions of a heavenly mentor, a reminder that the legal and mystical strands often ran through the same figures. culture / religion ●●●

1566 This left for consideration the Habsburg possessions in rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story “The war in the Netherlands,” observed one Spanish councillor, “has been the total ruin of this monarchy.” In fact, between 1566 and 1654 Spain sent at least 218 million ducats to the Military Treasur ●●

7 September 1566 Death of Suleiman at Szigetvár 0 cit. Suleiman dies during the siege of a Hungarian fortress; his death is hidden from the army until the campaign ends. His reign is often treated as the peak of Ottoman power, after which the empire remained strong but faced slower growth and mounting internal strain. politics / war ●●

1567 War (1567) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story . Hale, “Armies, Navies, and the Art of War,” in NCMH, vol. 2, pp. 481–509, and vol. 3, pp. 171–208; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, ch. 4; R. Bean, “War and the Birth of the Nation Sta ●●

1568 to 1648 Eighty Years' War 0 cit. no story The Dutch provinces revolt against Spanish rule in a war lasting eight decades. The Peace of Westphalia recognizes the independent Dutch Republic, by then a leading commercial power. politics / religion / war ●●●●

1568 The Dutch Revolt against Spain begins 0 cit. Provinces in the Netherlands rose against the taxes, centralization, and religious repression of their Habsburg ruler Philip II, opening the Eighty Years' War. The struggle forged an independent Dutch republic with maritime and commercial strength. politics / religion / war ●●●●

1568 Tommaso Campanella born in Calabria ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Tommaso Campanella is born in Stilo, Calabria, Italy. He will become a magician-philosopher and Dominican friar like Bruno but follow a different path. ●●

1 July 1569 Union of Lublin 0 cit. Treaty merging the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania into the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth with a shared elected king and parliament. It created one of the largest states in Europe. diplomacy / politics ●●●

1569 Cosimo I de' Medici named Grand Duke of Tuscany 0 cit. Pope Pius V granted Cosimo I de' Medici the title of Grand Duke of Tuscany in 1569. The family now ruled a substantial Italian state as sovereign princes. politics ●●●●

1569 In the seven teenth century, Muscovy fought with rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the seven teenth century, Muscovy fought with and outmaneuvered a rival empire- Empires across Continents 273 the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (... ●●

1569 Cosimo de' Medici made Grand Duke of Tuscany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Cosimo de' Medici was created Grand Duke of Tuscany, establishing a ducal line that would endure over two hundred years. ●●

1569 Union of Lublin forms the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Union of Lublin restructures political and constitutional framework of Poland-Lithuania. ●●

1570 Isaac Luria arrives in Safed 0 cit. Isaac Luria, later called the Ari, arrived in Safed and within a short period reshaped Kabbalah through his teaching. He died in 1572, leaving almost no writings of his own. culture / religion ●●●●●

c. 1570 American silver flows to Ming China 0 cit. China's shift to a silver based tax and money system drew vast quantities of American and Japanese silver through Manila and Europe. Spanish silver became a near global currency and tied distant economies together. economy ●●●●

25 February 1570 Regnans in Excelsis excommunicates Elizabeth I 0 cit. Pope Pius V declared Queen Elizabeth I a heretic and released her subjects from allegiance. The bull deepened the split with England and made English Catholics suspect as potential traitors. politics / religion ●●●

1570 Duffy, Marking the Hours: English People and Their Prayers, 1240-1570 (New Haven rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Duffy, Marking the Hours: English People and Their Prayers, 1240-1570 (New Haven and London, 2006); on printed primers, see ibid ●●

c. 1570 Moses Isserles adapts Jewish law for Ashkenazim 0 cit. Rabbi Moses Isserles of Kraków, known as the Rema, wrote a set of glosses called HaMapah, the Tablecloth, on the Shulchan Aruch code of law. The code had been written by the Sephardic scholar Joseph Karo, and Isserles added the customs of Ashkenazi Jewry so both traditions could use it. His work made the Shulchan Aruch the accepted code for Jews everywhere. culture / religion ●●

1570 Isaac Luria transforms Kabbalah in Safed 0 cit. Isaac Luria, called the Ari, arrived in Safed and within two years recast Kabbalah through his teaching before dying in 1572. He left almost no writings, and his ideas reached the world mainly through disciples, which left room for lasting debate over what he actually taught. culture / religion ●●●

c. 1571 Luria's doctrine of tzimtzum 0 cit. Tzimtzum is Luria's idea that the Infinite contracted or withdrew itself to make room for a finite world to exist. It offered a new account of how a boundless God could give rise to a separate creation. culture / religion ●●●●

c. 1571 The breaking of the vessels 0 cit. In Lurianic cosmology the vessels meant to hold the divine light shattered, scattering sparks of holiness into the material world. This rupture, called shevirat ha-kelim, explains the presence of disorder and evil. culture / religion ●●●●

c. 1571 Tikkun olam, repairing the world 0 cit. Luria taught that human beings, through prayer and righteous action, gather the scattered sparks and mend the broken cosmos, a process called tikkun olam or repair of the world. The phrase later took on a broad ethical and social meaning in modern Judaism. culture / religion ●●●●●

1571 Event rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The state exempted Indians from the Inquisition after 1571 but encouraged other institutions aimed at enforcing as well as propagating the faith among indigenous peoples: the Provi... ●●

7 October 1571 Battle of Lepanto 0 cit. A Holy League fleet of Christian states, using galleys and gun-armed galleasses, decisively defeated the Ottoman navy. It was one of the last major battles fought primarily between oar-powered galley fleets before sail-and-cannon ships became dominant at sea. The battle checked, for a time, Ottoman naval expansion in the western Mediterranean. religion / war ●●

c. 1571 Lurianic Kabbalah: tzimtzum, the shattered vessels, and tikkun 0 cit. Luria taught that the Infinite withdrew into itself, an act called tzimtzum, to make room for a finite world, that the vessels meant to hold the divine light then shattered and scattered holy sparks into creation, and that human deeds gather those sparks in a repair called tikkun olam. Whether tzimtzum was meant literally or as metaphor became a long-running dispute among later Kabbalists. culture / religion ●●●

1571 Nagasaki opens to the Portugal trade 0 cit. A local lord opens the port of Nagasaki to Portuguese ships, and the town grows as the center of the Japan trade and of Jesuit activity. The yearly Great Ship from Macau brought Chinese silk and hauled away Japanese silver, until later rulers grew wary of the Christian mission and shut the trade down. culture / economy / religion ●

c. 1572 Adam Kadmon, the primordial human 0 cit. Lurianic Kabbalah describes Adam Kadmon as the first emanation of the divine, a cosmic figure through whom the sefirot take form. The image links the structure of the universe to the shape of the human being. culture / religion ●●●

24 August 1572 Saint Bartholomew's Day Massacre 0 cit. A wave of killings targeting French Protestants began in Paris and spread across France, leaving thousands dead. The massacre was a turning point in the French Wars of Religion between Catholics and Huguenots. politics / religion / war ●●●

1572 War, Money, and the Nation-State Let us now rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Army of Flanders mutinied no less than forty-six times between 1572 and 1607; but so also, if less frequently, did equally formidable forces, like the Swedes in Germany or Cromwell’s New Model Arm ●●

1572 War (1572) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story udel, Mediterranean World, vol. 2, p. 841; and, for a full breakdown, Parker, “Lepanto (1571): the Costs of Victory,” in Spain and the Netherlands, pp. 122–34. 27. NCMH, vol. 3, p ●●

1572 Sigismund Augustus dies, ending the Jagiellon line ai_extracted 1 cit. no story King Sigismund Augustus dies, ending Jagiellon male line and triggering royal election. ●●

1572 Tycho Brahe observes new star in Cassiopeia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Tycho Brahé observed a new star appearing in the constellation Cassiopeia. According to Blavatsky, he viewed the Milky Way as an ethereal substance and believed this star had been formed from that matter. ●●

1572 The fall of Vilcabamba ends Inca resistance 0 cit. After Manco Inca rebelled in 1536, a rump Neo-Inca state held out in the remote Vilcabamba region for a generation. In 1572 Viceroy Francisco de Toledo's forces overrun it and capture the last ruler, Tupac Amaru I, who is executed in Cusco. His death closes forty years of armed Inca resistance to Spanish rule. politics / war ●●

c. 1573 Hayyim Vital records Luria's teachings 0 cit. Luria's chief disciple Hayyim Vital compiled his master's oral teachings into the Etz Chaim, or Tree of Life. This work became the main channel through which Lurianic Kabbalah spread across the Jewish world. culture / religion ●●●●

1573 The mita forced labour system 0 cit. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo systematized the mita, drafting indigenous Andean men to work in the silver mines of Potosi in rotation. Conditions were lethal, and the system drew on a pre-colonial labour obligation twisted to serve the mines. economy / society ●●●

1573 emperor Wanli took the mystique of imperial aloof rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The emperor Wanli ( 1573-1620) took the mystique of imperial aloof ness to an extreme by isolating himself inside the Forbidden City. ●●

1573 Warsaw Confederation guarantees religious freedom ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Meeting of Polish Diet in Warsaw unanimously approves clause on religious freedom for new king Henri. ●●

c. 1573 The colonial mita and the toll of Potosi 0 cit. Viceroy Francisco de Toledo turns the old Inca mita labor tax into a system of forced, rotating labor drafts that send indigenous men to the mines of Potosi and the mercury pits of Huancavelica. Conditions were lethal, especially at Huancavelica, and communities went to great lengths to escape the draft. Historians differ sharply on the death toll, with some older accounts claiming millions of deaths across the colonial centuries and modern scholars urging more careful, lower estimates, but agree the human cost was severe. economy / society ●●●

c. 1573 Hayyim Vital records the teachings of the Ari 0 cit. Luria's chief disciple Hayyim Vital compiled his master's oral teachings into the Etz Chaim, the Tree of Life. This became the main channel through which Lurianic Kabbalah spread across the Jewish world and reshaped its prayer and practice. culture / religion ●●

1575 w now ty (1575) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story au 1699) f. 58a: yp’w now ty (1575) n”’Sw now wnat yppo 19m O91 9KNM 1T7D9n. (1630). 127 Most of the ●●

1575 Portugal founds Luanda and the colony of Angola 0 cit. Portugal plants a colony at Luanda and pushes inland through decades of war against African states. Angola became the great source of the transatlantic slave trade, and over the following centuries millions of enslaved people were shipped from its ports, most of them to Brazil. economy / society / war ●●●

1576 Portugal founds Luanda in Angola 0 cit. The founding of Luanda opened West Central Africa as the single largest source of captives for the Atlantic trade. Angola and the Kongo region alone supplied several million people over the following centuries. economy / exploration ●●●●

1576 Bruno flees the Dominican Order over heresy ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bruno got into trouble for heresy, fled, and abandoned his Dominican habit, beginning his life of wandering through Europe. ●●

1576 Bruno leaves the Dominican Order in Naples ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After thirteen years in the Order, Bruno leaves the Dominican convent in Naples having been proceeded against for heresy. He begins his wanderings across Europe. ●●

1576 Bodin's Six Books of the Commonwealth 0 cit. Jean Bodin's Six Books of the Commonwealth set out an early systematic theory of sovereignty, arguing that a legitimate state must hold supreme, indivisible authority within its territory. Bodin's account of sovereign power, including control over force and law, laid groundwork for later theories of the state's exclusive claim to legitimate violence. His work influenced Hobbes and the broader development of early modern state theory. politics / society ●●

c. 1576 Tycho Brahe builds the best pre-telescope observatory 0 cit. Tycho Brahe gathered decades of extremely precise naked-eye measurements of the planets and stars from his observatory at Uraniborg. He kept the Earth at the center in his own hybrid model, so he was not a Copernican. But his data, more accurate than anything before, became the raw material for a revolution he did not intend. science ●●

1577 to 1580 Drake's circumnavigation of the globe 0 cit. Francis Drake returns from the second circumnavigation of the world, laden with Spanish plunder; Elizabeth knights him on his own ship. exploration / war ●●●

1577 Philip Sidney's mission to Rudolph II's court ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Philip Sidney is sent on a mission to the imperial court of Emperor Rudolph II, exploring possibilities for a Protestant League in Europe. ●●

1578 Dalai Lama title conferred 0 cit. The Mongol ruler Altan Khan bestows the title Dalai Lama on the Gelug lama Sonam Gyatso, applied retroactively to his two predecessors. The institution later becomes the spiritual and, for centuries, political leadership of Tibet. politics / religion ●●●

1578 Christian catacombs rediscovered beneath Rome ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Large number of Christian catacombs rediscovered beneath Rome containing bones of early Christian martyrs. ●●

4 August 1578 The disaster at Alcacer Quibir 0 cit. King Sebastian leads an army into Morocco and is killed with much of the Portuguese nobility at the Battle of the Three Kings. His death without an heir threw the crown into a succession crisis that Spain would soon exploit. politics / war ●●

23 January 1579 Union of Utrecht 0 cit. Alliance of the northern Netherlands provinces against Spanish rule, coordinating defense and finances. It functioned as a founding constitution of the Dutch Republic. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

23 January 1579 Union of Utrecht binds the northern provinces 0 cit. Seven northern provinces formed a defensive league that became the political core of the Dutch Republic. The union created a decentralized federation dominated by the wealthy province of Holland. politics ●●●

1579 By the 1590s, then, the United Provinces had rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Even the prosperous province of Holland found the tax burdens enormous; in 1579 it had to provide 960,000 florins for the war, in 1599 almost 5.5 million florins. By the early seventeenth century, wit ●●

1580 Iberian Union joins Spain and Portugal 0 cit. Philip II of Spain inherited the Portuguese crown, uniting the two overseas empires under one monarch. The combined realms stretched across the Americas, Africa, Asia, and the Pacific, a domain often called the empire on which the sun never set. politics ●●●●

1580 War (1580) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story rlier wars, see idem, A History of the Art of War in the Middle Ages, 2 vols. (London, 1924). 2. See the warning about this in G. R. Elton, Reformation Europe 1517–1559 (London, 1 ●●

1580 1580 (New Haven and London, 1992), 524-63; see also essays in E rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1580 (New Haven and London, 1992), 524-63; see also essays in E ●●

c. 1580 The Council of Four Lands governs Polish Jewry 0 cit. Polish Jews ran their own central parliament, the Council of Four Lands, which met at the great trade fairs. It set taxes, settled disputes, and represented the community to the crown, giving Ashkenazi Jewry a rare degree of self-government. The council lasted until 1764, when the state abolished it. politics / religion / society ●●

1580 The Iberian Union joins Portugal to Spain 0 cit. Philip II of Spain presses his claim and takes the Portuguese throne, uniting the two crowns under one king. For sixty years Portugal's empire was dragged into Spain's wars, and its trade and colonies became targets for Spain's enemies, above all the Dutch. diplomacy / politics ●●

26 July 1581 Independence of the Netherlands 0 cit. no story The Act of Abjuration renounces Philip II of Spain during the Dutch Revolt, founding the independent Dutch Republic. politics / war ●●●●

c. 1581 to c. 1582 Yermak's Campaign into Siberia 0 cit. A Cossack expedition led by Yermak, backed by the Stroganov merchants, defeated the Khanate of Sibir and began Russia's expansion across Siberia. The push east eventually reached the Pacific. exploration / war ●●●

26 July 1581 Act of Abjuration renounces the king 0 cit. The rebel provinces formally deposed Philip II as their sovereign, arguing a ruler who violated his subjects' rights could be rejected. The declaration was an early assertion that authority rests on obligations to the governed. politics ●●●

1581 Dutch Republic declares independence 0 cit. The northern Dutch provinces renounced their Spanish king and formed a republic run by the provinces and their representatives. It became a prosperous, relatively tolerant state without a monarch. economy / politics ●●●●

1581 Bruno reaches Paris and attracts Henri III ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bruno reached Paris after leaving Calvin's Geneva and lecturing at Toulouse, where he attracted the attention of King Henri III. ●●

1582 Bruno's Cantus Circaeus published ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bruno's Cantus Circaeus, a magical work with Hermetic incantations, was published. ●●

1582 Campanella enters the Dominican Order ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nineteen years after Bruno entered the Order, Campanella enters the Dominican Order in convents farther south in Italy. ●●

1582 Gregory XIII establishes the Gregorian calendar ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pope Gregory XIII reforms deficiencies of Julian calendar from 15 October 1582, establishing Gregorian calendar. ●●

c. 1583 Rise of the British Empire 0 cit. England's first overseas claims began an expansion that grew into the British Empire. At its height it was the largest empire in history, spanning every continent. exploration / politics ●●●●●

1583 to 1610 Matteo Ricci's Mission in China 0 cit. Matteo Ricci entered mainland China and worked to present Christianity in terms Chinese scholars could accept. He introduced European science and mapmaking and gained access to the imperial court. religion / science ●●●●

1583 John Dee leaves England for the continent ai_extracted 1 cit. no story John Dee's influential career in Elizabethan England ended when he departed to the continent, where he became instrumental in stirring up new movements. ●●

31 December 1584 Treaty of Joinville 0 cit. Secret treaty between Philip II of Spain and the French Catholic League to exclude the Protestant Henry of Navarre from the French throne. It drew Spain directly into the French Wars of Religion. diplomacy / politics / religion ●●

1584 Bruno publishes De l'infinito universo e mondi ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Giordano Bruno publishes his philosophical work on the infinite universe and worlds in England. The work is dedicated to the French ambassador and represents a major statement of his cosmological views. ●●

1585 to 1604 Anglo-Spanish War of 1585-1604 0 cit. no story England and Spain fight an undeclared naval war highlighted by the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. The war establishes England as a serious maritime power. war ●●●

c. 1585 to c. 1590 The Roanoke Colony 0 cit. England's first attempt to plant a permanent colony in North America was made off present-day North Carolina. The settlement failed and its colonists vanished, becoming known as the Lost Colony. exploration / society ●●

1585 Bruno publishes Cabala del Cavallo Pegaseo ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bruno publishes his Cabala del Cavallo Pegaseo in England with a false imprint of Paris. This work reveals his attitudes toward Cabalism and religious syncretism. ●●

1585 Mordente publishes his new compass design ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Fabrizio Mordente publishes a description of his new compass design in Paris, illustrating its innovative device for mathematical and geometric purposes. ●●

1585 Bruno leaves England with ambassador Mauvissiere ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The French ambassador Mauvissière is recalled from England and leaves in October. Bruno departs England with him in his suite. ●●

1585 The fall of Antwerp shifts trade to Amsterdam 0 cit. Spanish forces retake Antwerp and the Dutch blockade its river, choking off the great southern port. Merchants, bankers, and skilled workers flee north to Amsterdam, carrying the capital and trade networks that fuel its rise as the hub of world commerce. economy / war ●●

1586 Bruno publishes Centum et viginti articuli in Paris ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bruno publishes his Centum et viginti articuli (One Hundred and Twenty Articles on Nature and the World against the Peripatetics) in Paris, dedicated to Henri III. ●●

1586 Bruno debates at the College de Cambrai ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bruno summons the doctors of Paris to hear him present his philosophical articles at the College de Cambrai. The debate takes place on May 28-29, during Pentecost week. ●●

1586 Bruno leaves Paris for Germany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After his activities in Paris and fearing retribution for his criticism of Aristotle and other conflicts, Bruno leaves Paris around August 1586 to go to Germany. ●●

1586 Bruno teaches at Wittenberg University ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bruno arrives at Wittenberg and is accepted by the university to teach. He spends two years there (1586-1588) as a professor and lecturer. ●●

8 February 1587 Execution of Mary, Queen of Scots 0 cit. Elizabeth reluctantly signs the death warrant for her Catholic cousin Mary, removing the focus of Catholic plots and giving Philip II his pretext for war. politics ●●●

1587 The Muslim World Even the first of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Not only were the Ottoman Turks pushing westward, but the Safavid dynasty in Persia was also enjoying a resurgence of power, prosperity, and high culture, especially in the reigns of Ismail I (1500–15 ●●

1587 Information history in 1587 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story e numbers. Meaning comes into the dictionary in its definitions, of course. ●●

August 1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada 0 cit. The 130-ship Spanish Armada, sent by Philip II to invade England, is scattered by English fireships off Gravelines and wrecked by storms on the voyage home. England survives. politics / war ●●●●●

1588 Defeat of the Spanish Armada secures British sea control, 1588 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley dates Britain's control of the narrow seas from the defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588, a security that lasted until air power emerged after 1935. ●●

1588 Bruno publishes Oratio valedictoria at Wittenberg ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Bruno delivers and publishes his Oratio valedictoria at Wittenberg, containing his genealogy of wisdom and praise for the university and Martin Luther. ●●