Events, Verisoph

1900 leaped into the first rank of world banking, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story leaped into the first rank of world banking, its balance sheet expanding from assets of 46 million marks in 1900, to 127 million marks in 1914. ●●

1900 Viewed solely in terms of political culture and rhetoric aro rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Viewed solely in terms of political culture and rhetoric around 1900, this is a hard claim to detect: Russian and Austrian anti-Semitism was at least as strong as German, French chauvinism as marked a ●●

1900 The empire also underwent much industrialization in these de rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The empire also underwent much industrialization in these decades, though the pace of change was perhaps swifter before 1900 than after. Its coal production by 1914 was a respectable 47 million tons, ●●

1900 As the international tensions built up in the decade or so a rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As the international tensions built up in the decade or so after 1900, the Austro-Hungarian Empire’s strategical position appeared parlous indeed. Its internal divisions threatened to split the countr ●●

1900 Despite the Triple Alliance, the tensions with Italy became rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Despite the Triple Alliance, the tensions with Italy became greater after 1900, and on several occasions Conrad advocated a military blow against this southern neighbor; even if his proposal was firml ●●

1900 Between 1871 and 1900, France had added 3 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Between 1871 and 1900, France had added 3.5 million square miles to its existing colonial territories, and it possessed indisputably the largest overseas empire after Britain’s. Although the commerce ●●

1900 As the twentieth century approached, therefore, the pace rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Although the major development of the fifty years after 1900 can thus be seen as the coming of a bipolar world, with its consequent crisis for the “middle” Powers (as referred in the titles of Chapter ●●

1900 1900 Economic rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story in 1900 = 100) 472.6 178.4 Because of the “lag time” between turning this economic potential into military effectiveness, the immediate consequences of the American entry into the... ●●

1900 1900 European rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Despite superficial fascist indoctrination, nothing in Italian society and political culture had altered between 1900 and 1930 to make the army a more attractive career to talented... ●●

1900 1900 Diplomatic Agreement rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The coalitions which Britain had woven together to counter Napoleon, the successful ententes and rapprochements which had been effected in the years after 1900, could no longer be ... ●●

1900 1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In the Social Darwinistic and imperialistic atmosphere that had prevailed around 1900, it was easy to think that all power was being concentrated in fewer and fewer capitals of the... ●●

1900 Eight-Nation Alliance invades China ai_extracted 1 cit. no story International military force loots Beijing and other Chinese cities, further cementing sense of national victimhood. ●●

1900 hat what should have mattered to them most was Bri... candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story hat what should have mattered to them most was British neutrality in a Continental war. In October 1900, Salisbury’s poor health forced him to give up ●●

1900 1900, that figure had declined to 9.7 percent. rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1900, that figure had declined to 9.7 percent. ●●

1900 Rutherford discovers thorium radioactive emanation ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Rutherford reported the discovery of a radioactive gas emanating from the radioactive element thorium. ●●

1900 1900: Howard Aiken (1900–1973) at Harvard in 1945. John Mauchly (1907–80) ci rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Howard Aiken (1900–1973) at Harvard in 1945. John Mauchly (1907–80) circa 1945. J. Presper E ●●

1900 Event of 1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story With no trace of self-consciousness, he presented the war that had established America as a great power in two oceans as a uniquely unselfish mission. “The American flag has not been planted in foreign soil to acquire more territory,” he explained in ●●

1900 Summer vacation in Melchtal rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein arrived at end of July 1900 for family vacation in Melchtal, Swiss Alps, carrying physics books including Kirchhoff. Family tensions arose regarding his relationship with Mileva Mari. ●●

1900 Weber refuses to hire Einstein at Zurich Polytechnic ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Einstein attempted to get a position as assistant to a professor at the Zurich Polytechnic in August 1900, but Professor Weber refused to hire him due to his impudence. He remained unemployed. ●●

1900 Foundations of Constitutional Government in Modern Japan, 1868–1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Foundations of Constitutional Government in Modern Japan, 1868–1900. ●●

1900 —Democratic Party (U.S.) National Platform, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story —Democratic Party (U.S.) National Platform, 1900 Following its bombing of Iraq in 1991, the United States wound up with military bases in Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar, Oman and the United Arab Emirates ●●

1900 1900 - China - May rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1900 - China - May 24 to September 28: To protect foreign lives during the Boxer rising, particularly at Peking ●●

1900 Behind it was Taylor’s generosity of spirit: for instance, when his Mission rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Behind it was Taylor’s generosity of spirit: for instance, when his Mission suffered alongside others in the next great outburst of Chinese fury against foreigners, the Boxer Rebellion of 1900, he refused the compensation extorted from the imperial g ●●

1900 65 The Pope’s unhappy equivocations contrast with the conduct of a Catholic rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 65 The Pope’s unhappy equivocations contrast with the conduct of a Catholic Church leader in an infinitely more dangerous personal situation: Andrei Sheptyts’kyi, Greek Catholic Metropolitan of Galician Ukraine since 1900, when it had been Habsburg t ●●

1900 Liberal Protestantism after 1900 chose a very different path from either the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Liberal Protestantism after 1900 chose a very different path from either the Holiness/Keswick styles of the conservatives, or the proliferation of identities in the new Churches ●●

1900 Catholic in outlook and Spanish or Portuguese in language in 1900, from rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Catholic in outlook and Spanish or Portuguese in language in 1900, from the first few decades of the century, Latin America was gaining a Pentecostal presence which marched in step with an increasingly diverse immigrant community, but which also rapi ●●

1900 In 1900, 55 per cent of British children attended Sunday School; the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1900, 55 per cent of British children attended Sunday School; the figure was still 24 per cent in 1960, but 9 per cent in 1980 and 4 per cent in 2000 ●●

1900 In 1900, the Orthodox were estimated as 21 per cent of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In 1900, the Orthodox were estimated as 21 per cent of the world’s Christians; that had declined to 11 per cent at the beginning of the twenty-first century, while the Roman Catholic proportion, thanks to its growth in the south of the globe, had ris ●●

1900 Owain Hughes, ‘Anti-Catholicism in Wales, 1900-60’, JEH, 53 (2002), 312-25, at 322 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Owain Hughes, ‘Anti-Catholicism in Wales, 1900-60’, JEH, 53 (2002), 312-25, at 322 ●●

1900 Founding or establishment candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story And so, when more than 1900 S&Ls went belly-up in the Great Depression, Herbert Hoover—and a most willing Congress— created the Federal Home Loan Bank ●●

1900 In fact, most of the 35 firms had been formed before 1900 and a sizable number b rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story In fact, most of the 35 firms had been formed before 1900 and a sizable number before 1890 ●●

1900 Indeed the only new firm of this type to be formed after 1900 was California Pac candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Indeed the only new firm of this type to be formed after 1900 was California Packing (Del Monte), a 1916 merger of local canning companies that built ●●

1900 All but one, Sharon Steel, is in table 8, and that firm was founded in 1900 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story All but one, Sharon Steel, is in table 8, and that firm was founded in 1900 ●●

1900 To operate his national enterprise, Vail quickly created an administrative struc candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story To operate his national enterprise, Vail quickly created an administrative structure based on legal changes instituted in 1900 ●●

1900 By 1900 the names of many integrated, multifunctional enterprises had become hou... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1900 the names of many integrated, multifunctional enterprises had become household words ●●

1900 By 1900 the American Tobacco Company had come to dominate that industry complete... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story By 1900 the American Tobacco Company had come to dominate that industry completely, except for the making of cigars ●●

1900 Nevertheless, the giant, integrated industrial enterprise remained the exception... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nevertheless, the giant, integrated industrial enterprise remained the exception until after 1900 ●●

1900 After 1900 National Biscuit continued to compete in the new manner, relying on b... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After 1900 National Biscuit continued to compete in the new manner, relying on brand names, advertising, and scale economies ●●

1900 Integration Completed An overview: 1900–1917 As the new century opened, patter... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Integration Completed An overview: 1900–1917 As the new century opened, patterns of success and failure were only just beginning to appear ●●

1900 But after 1900 the modern multiunit industrial enterprise became a standard inst... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story But after 1900 the modern multiunit industrial enterprise became a standard instrument for managing the production and distribution of goods in America ●●

1900 Even before 1900 a high degree of concentration could be found in many industrie... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Even before 1900 a high degree of concentration could be found in many industries ●●

1900 All three divisions marketed their products through Armour’s nationwide branch h... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story All three divisions marketed their products through Armour’s nationwide branch house organization, which by 1900 numbered 200 houses ●●

1900 Then after 1900 with the opening of new fields in the south and far west, Standa... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Then after 1900 with the opening of new fields in the south and far west, Standard of California and Standard of Louisiana developed similar integrated operations ●●

1900 The appurtenances of professionalism—societies, journals, university training, a... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The appurtenances of professionalism—societies, journals, university training, and specialized consultants—hardly existed in the United States in 1900 ●●

1900 After 1900, however, as the economy, particularly the cities, grew, the demand f... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After 1900, however, as the economy, particularly the cities, grew, the demand for banking services became more acute ●●

1900 British concentration camps during the Boer War 1 cit. As Boer commandos continued guerrilla resistance, British forces under Lord Kitchener adopted a scorched-earth policy, burning farms and interning Boer women, children, and elderly men in camps to deny fighters support. Roughly 26,000 Boer civilians, mostly children, died in these camps from disease and malnutrition, along with tens of thousands of Black African laborers interned in separate camps. The camps caused lasting bitterness and became a defining grievance in Afrikaner nationalist memory. society / war ●●●

c. 1900 British colonial rule expands through indirect rule 0 cit. British administrators, notably Frederick Lugard in Nigeria, developed indirect rule as a governing method, ruling through existing local chiefs and rulers rather than replacing them with British officials. The approach reduced administrative costs and reinforced or invented ethnic and chiefly hierarchies to serve colonial control. It left lasting effects on the political structures of many former British colonies after independence. politics ●

c. 1900 "Masonic World Government" Monument Claim contested 0 cit. CONTESTED CLAIM: a broader conspiracy theory holds that obelisks, Masonic cornerstone ceremonies, and city street layouts across the 19th and 20th centuries add up to proof of a hidden Masonic plan for world government, spelled out in stone. No historical evidence supports this. The real history is more ordinary: European and American elites of the period genuinely liked obelisks and Egyptian motifs as a fashion, and Freemasonry was a large, socially prominent fraternal organization whose members included many public officials, so its ritual naturally showed up at public building ceremonies. Popular conspiracy writers from the 20th century onward have strung these ordinary facts together into a narrative that mainstream historians do not accept. culture / politics ●●

c. 1900 Nairobi Masons petition Grand Lodge for a charter 0 cit. A small group of Freemasons among the railway staff and early settlers in Nairobi met to discuss forming a lodge and wrote to Sir Edward Letchworth, Grand Secretary of the United Grand Lodge of England. Grand Lodge was initially reluctant to charter a lodge from a handful of masons in a remote railway town, none of whom had yet served as Master of a lodge. The approach nonetheless set in motion the founding of organized Freemasonry in British East Africa. society ●●

12 December 1900 British and Boer Freemasons meet at Jagersfontein 0 cit. In the midst of the Anglo-Boer War, a documented meeting was held on 12 December 1900 at Jagersfontein bringing together Freemasons from both the British and Boer sides. It stands as recorded evidence that Masonic fraternal ties persisted informally even while the two sides remained at war. society / war ●●

14 April 1900 Exposition Universelle of 1900 0 cit. This fair introduced the Paris Métro's first line and a Palace of Electricity that displayed the new technology to nearly 50 million visitors, making it one of the best-attended fairs of the era. It also featured a reconstructed "negro village" exhibit displaying colonial subjects for visitors, part of the same documented human zoo tradition seen at earlier French and international expositions. culture / technology ●●

c. September 1900 British Scorched-Earth Policy and Camps Established 0 cit. British forces under Lord Roberts and later Lord Kitchener burned Boer farms and crops and destroyed livestock to deny supplies to guerrilla fighters. Displaced Boer women, children, and elderly men were moved into camps the British called "refugee camps." Black African farm workers and their families were interned in separate camps under similar conditions. society / war ●●●

c. 1900 Congo Free State's Rubber Terror 0 cit. Under Leopold II's personal rule, Force Publique agents enforced rubber-collection quotas on Congolese villages through hostage-taking, whipping, and the amputation of hands, often demanded as proof that ammunition had been used on people rather than wasted on game. Entire villages were burned when quotas went unmet. Adam Hochschild's history "King Leopold's Ghost" and earlier contemporary reports describe a death toll, driven by killing, starvation, exhaustion, and disease, that some historians estimate reached millions, though the exact figure remains disputed and impossible to verify precisely given the absence of reliable population records. economy / war ●●●

c. 1900 The Indian policing model exported to East Africa 0 cit. Britain built the East African police on the model already used in colonial India, an armed force run by British officers and designed to control a subject population rather than answer to it. Indian officers and constables, many recruited from Punjab, staffed and drilled the early force, and Indian legal codes shaped its powers. This borrowed system embedded a militarised, top-down style of policing from the start. politics / society ●●

23 July 1900 First Pan-African Conference in London 0 cit. Trinidadian barrister Henry Sylvester Williams convened the first Pan-African Conference, drawing delegates of African descent from across the diaspora. W. E. B. Du Bois addressed the meeting and framed the coming century around what he called the color line. It began an organized tradition of Pan-African gatherings that later fed into independence movements. politics / society ●●

c. 1900 E.D. Morel exposes the Congo system 0 cit. The shipping clerk E.D. Morel noticed that ships returning from the Congo carried rubber and ivory but sent back mainly guns and chains, evidence that the trade rested on forced labor rather than commerce. He launched a journalistic and public campaign to expose the system. His work made the Congo a major international scandal. economy / politics ●●

c. 1900 The lodge as club of the colonial elite 0 cit. In colonial towns the lodge functioned as a networking and status institution, linking officials, businessmen, and professionals across ranks and sometimes across race in a limited way. Membership signaled respectability and gave access to patronage and contacts. Popular and nationalist writers later read hidden political power into these networks, a claim usually asserted rather than documented. economy / politics / society ●

c. 1900 Conspiracy readings of missions and lodges 0 cit. Popular writing on both networks often slides from documented history into conspiracy, casting missionaries as mere spies for empire or Freemasons as a hidden hand steering revolutions and governments. Historians accept that missions and lodges served colonial society and elite networking, but reject claims of a single controlling design. Separating the documented record from these readings is central to comparing the two institutions honestly. culture / politics / society ●

c. 1900 The third degree: from ritual to interrogation 0 cit. To give someone the third degree means to question them harshly. The popular explanation ties it to Freemasonry's third and highest degree, that of Master Mason, whose ceremony of raising is the most demanding a candidate faces; the three-degree system was in place by about 1730. The interrogation sense is recorded in American English around 1900. The link is widely believed and plausible, though some lexicographers note it could also just play on degree meaning a step or level of severity. culture / society ●●●

c. 1900 Why so brutal: economic driver versus 'evil man' readings 0 cit. Historians locate the primary cause of the Congo atrocities in the incentive structure: quotas, payment by output, an unaccountable private state, and a distant sovereign focused on returns. Psychological or 'evil personality' portraits of Leopold are interpretation, not established fact, and should be attributed rather than asserted. Leopold never visited the Congo and treated it largely as an accounting problem, which supports reading the system, not a single monstrous character, as the engine of the killing. economy / society ●●

c. 1900 E. D. Morel reads the shipping records 0 cit. Edmund Dene Morel, a clerk for a Liverpool shipping line handling Congo cargo, noticed that ships arrived from the Congo full of rubber and ivory but sailed back mainly with guns, chains, and soldiers. He concluded that no real trade was taking place, only forced extraction, and that the wealth rested on slavery. This bookkeeping insight turned a shipping clerk into the era's most determined investigative campaigner. economy / society ●●●

c. 1900 Most of Africa colonized within about twenty years 0 cit. In 1870 Europeans controlled only a small fraction of Africa, mostly coastal footholds. By around 1900 nearly the whole continent had been claimed, with only Ethiopia and Liberia remaining independent. The speed came from steamships, quinine against malaria, the telegraph, and above all a huge gap in firepower. politics / technology / war ●●●

c. 1900 War of the Golden Stool and Yaa Asantewaa 0 cit. When a British governor demanded the sacred Golden Stool, symbol of the Ashanti nation, Queen Mother Yaa Asantewaa led an armed revolt. The Ashanti besieged the British fort at Kumasi before superior firepower broke the rising. Yaa Asantewaa was captured and exiled, but she became a lasting emblem of resistance and the stool was never surrendered. culture / politics / war ●●

c. 1900 The colonial extractive economy takes hold 0 cit. Colonies were reshaped to feed European industry: forced labor, head taxes to push people into wage work, and land turned over to cash crops and mines. Railways and ports were built to move raw materials out, not to knit African regions together. In the worst cases, such as Leopold's Congo, the demand for rubber brought violence on a mass scale. economy / politics / society ●●●

c. 1900 The Catholic Church and the White Fathers 1 cit. The Catholic missionary order known as the White Fathers built the schools, churches, and record systems that shaped colonial Rwanda. Church thinkers embraced Hamitic race theory and, for decades, groomed a Tutsi elite while teaching Hutu inferiority as fact. When politics shifted in the 1950s the Church swung its support to the Hutu majority, helping legitimize the new order. The Church's deep involvement on both sides is documented and heavily studied. religion / society ●●

1900 Hilbert's program and the twenty-three problems 0 cit. David Hilbert opened the new century by posing twenty-three unsolved problems that steered mathematics for decades. He later pushed a program to prove that all of mathematics could be built on a complete and consistent set of axioms. That confident dream would be undone within a generation by the work of Godel. science ●●●

c. 1900 The Customary Oath in Kikuyu Society 0 cit. Long before Mau Mau, the oath, or muma, was a serious binding ritual in Kikuyu life, used to settle disputes, seal agreements, and test truth. An oath-taker swore on sacred objects such as the githathi stone and invoked supernatural sanction, in the belief that a lie or a broken vow would bring sickness or death to the swearer and even their kin. Oaths were graded by gravity and administered by recognized elders under strict procedure. This existing tradition of solemn, self-binding ritual gave the later movement a ready idiom for commitment and secrecy. culture / society ●●

c. 1900 Colonial rule undermines the authority of elders and priests 0 cit. Elders, priests, rainmakers, and spirit mediums held power because they mediated between people, ancestors, and the divine. Colonial courts, chiefs, and taxes stripped them of authority and replaced ritual sanction with the power of the state. Many religious leaders resisted because conquest threatened not only their people but their own standing and calling. politics / religion / society ●●

c. 1900 War medicine and the belief in invulnerability 0 cit. Prophets across the continent offered charms, oils, and water said to turn enemy bullets to water or make fighters invulnerable. Whatever their physical effect, these rites gave courage and bound scattered fighters into a single cause under a shared vow. The promise of protection recurs in the Maji Maji, Chimurenga, and Nyabingi risings, and its repeated failure in battle often broke a movement's morale. culture / religion / war ●●

c. 1900 Missions and schools set out to replace the old faiths 0 cit. Missions and the colonial state worked hand in hand to supplant African religion, using schools, clinics, and access to jobs to draw people toward the church. Converts were often pressed to give up ancestor rites, polygamy, initiation, and traditional medicine as conditions of belonging. This slow replacement of belief and ritual was as central to conquest as any battle, and it provoked lasting resistance. politics / religion / society ●●●

c. 1900 Missions and Freemasonry stay distinct, and the Church condemns the lodge 0 cit. Both the missions and the Masonic lodges were institutions of colonial society, but they were separate and often at odds, since the Catholic Church and many Protestants formally condemned Freemasonry and barred members from joining. The popular idea of a hidden masonic-missionary conspiracy has no support in the documented record and should be set aside; the two simply shared the same colonial world. This honest note anchors the point, and the separate Kenya-Freemasonry thread covers the lodges in full. The date marks the era rather than one event, so it is approximate. religion / society ●●

c. 1900 Bringing the Lake Region Under Rule 0 cit. The British called the crowded, fertile country around Lake Victoria Kavirondo and set about administering its Luo, Luhya, and Gusii peoples through military posts and appointed headmen. The Uganda Railway reached its terminus at Kisumu in 1901, opening the lake to steamers, trade, and closer control. Densely settled and productive, the region was valued less for settler land than for its people, taxed and recruited as a vast source of labour. economy / politics ●●

c. 1900 Age-sets and the authority of the elders 0 cit. Kikuyu society was organized by age-sets, the generations of men initiated together, called riika. Elders held ritual and judicial power, and oaths were part of how the young were brought into adult society and how the community enforced its rules. Oathing therefore carried the weight of the whole social order, not just a private promise. This is why an oath could later be used to unite large numbers of people behind a shared cause. culture / society ●●●

23 July 1900 First Pan-African Conference meets in London 0 cit. The Trinidadian barrister Henry Sylvester Williams convened the first Pan-African Conference, gathering delegates of African descent from Africa, the Caribbean, and the Americas. In his address to the meeting, W. E. B. Du Bois declared that the problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color line. The conference began an organized tradition of Pan-African gatherings. politics / society ●●●

1900 The Buganda Agreement leaves Ugandans their land 0 cit. In neighbouring Uganda the 1900 Agreement handed land to the Buganda kingdom's chiefs and people under the mailo system rather than to white farmers. Uganda drew almost no European settlers, and Africans kept ownership of the land. Its economy grew on African-grown cotton and later coffee rather than on settler estates. economy / politics ●●

1900 The LSE joins the University of London 0 cit. In 1900 the School became part of a reformed University of London and the core of its new Faculty of Economics. This gave the LSE the power to award degrees and set it on the path to becoming a full university institution. The move turned a small Fabian venture into a recognised centre of higher learning. society ●●

c. 1900 The golden age of American fraternalism 0 cit. Around the turn of the twentieth century a large share of American men belonged to at least one fraternal order, in what historians call the golden age of fraternalism. Lodges provided insurance, sociability, ritual, and standing in the community, especially for men without other institutions. The orders shared a fraternal and ritual culture parallel to Freemasonry, with overlapping members and borrowed forms, though each order was separate and Masonry was only one tradition among many. economy / society ●●

January 1900 Roberts and Kitchener take command 0 cit. Field Marshal Lord Roberts arrives as commander-in-chief with Lord Kitchener as his chief of staff, and Britain pours in reinforcements from across the empire until the force numbers several hundred thousand. They reorganize the army, add mounted infantry to match Boer mobility, and prepare a massive advance into the republics. The weight of numbers begins to tell. war ●●●

February 1900 The relief of the sieges 0 cit. Roberts's advance breaks the sieges in quick succession: Kimberley is relieved on 15 February 1900 and Ladysmith on 28 February. The relief of Mafeking on 17 May sets off wild celebrations in London, giving the language the brief word 'mafficking' for riotous public rejoicing. At Paardeberg a large Boer army under Piet Cronjé is surrounded and forced to surrender. society / war ●●●

March 1900 The fall of Bloemfontein and Pretoria and the annexations 0 cit. British forces take Bloemfontein, the Orange Free State capital, in March 1900 and the Transvaal capital Pretoria in June. Britain formally annexes both republics, renaming the Free State the Orange River Colony, and declares the war effectively won. The Boer governments refuse to surrender and take the field as fighting commandos instead. politics / war ●●●●

c. September 1900 The commandos turn to guerrilla war 0 cit. With their capitals lost, the Boers abandon set-piece battles and wage a mobile guerrilla campaign across the veld. Leaders such as Christiaan de Wet, Louis Botha, Jan Smuts, and Koos de la Rey lead fast-riding commandos that raid supply lines, ambush columns, and vanish into the countryside. A war Britain thought was over drags on for nearly two more years. war ●●●●

1900 Kitchener's scorched-earth policy 0 cit. To deny the commandos food and shelter, Kitchener orders a systematic scorched-earth campaign. British troops burn thousands of Boer farms, destroy crops, poison or seal wells, and slaughter livestock across the two republics. The families driven from the ruined farms, mostly women and children, are rounded up and moved into camps. society / war ●●●●

1900 The concentration camps 0 cit. The British herd the displaced Boer civilians into a chain of camps, later called concentration camps, scattered across the colonies. Overcrowding, poor sanitation, thin rations, and shortages of clean water and medicine make them death traps, and measles, typhoid, and dysentery sweep through the tents. Tens of thousands of internees, most of them children, sicken and die. society / war ●●●●●

c. 1900 Jiggers reach Kenya with the caravans and the railway 0 cit. The jigger arrived in the East African interior with caravan porters, soldiers, and the Uganda Railway during the conquest. It caused crippling foot infestations among communities already broken by rinderpest, smallpox, and famine, adding disease to the disruption of colonization. environment / society ●●●

c. 1900 The punitive expedition as standard method 0 cit. Across central Kenya the British relied on one basic tool, the punitive expedition. A killing or a refusal to submit brought a column that burned villages, seized cattle and grain, and killed enough people to force surrender. Collective punishment of whole communities for the acts of a few was the accepted logic of pacification. politics / war ●●●

c. 1900 Maasai spears turned against the Nandi and Kamba 3 cit. The British recruited Maasai warriors as levies and irregulars in punitive expeditions against neighbours such as the Nandi, Kamba and others who resisted colonial control. In return for cattle taken as loot, Maasai moran did much of the fighting and raiding on Britain's behalf. Their martial tradition was thus used up in the service of the power that would soon dispossess them. politics / war ●●●

19 May 1900 London convention frames African hunting as a crime 0 cit. European powers signed the Convention for the Preservation of Wild Animals, Birds and Fish in Africa, setting rules for game across their colonies. In the East Africa Protectorate it fed game laws that licensed white sport hunters while treating African subsistence hunting as poaching. The same act that a Maasai or Kamba family used to feed itself became a punishable offence, and killing wildlife for meat was recast as a crime against the state. environment / politics / society ●●

c. 1900 The long Pokomo-Orma contest over the river 3 cit. Farmers and herders on the Tana have long competed for the same narrow strip of watered land. The Pokomo plant crops on the banks, while the Orma need to bring cattle to the river to drink, especially in drought. This clash of farming and grazing along one river has been a recurring source of tension for generations. economy / environment ●●

c. 1900 The Aweer of the Boni forest 0 cit. The Aweer, or Boni, are a small hunter-gatherer people of the Boni-Dodori forest in Kenya's far northeast. They lived by foraging, hunting and gathering wild honey, long tied as clients to Oromo and Somali herders around them. In recent decades they have been squeezed by forest conservation rules and by army operations against militants in the same forest, cutting them off from the land they depend on. environment / society ●●

c. 1900 The El Molo, fishers of Lake Turkana 0 cit. The El Molo live on the southeast shore of Lake Turkana near Loiyangalani and are among the smallest peoples in Kenya, numbering only a few hundred with unmixed descent. They fished the lake and hunted hippo and crocodile from reed rafts, a rare fishing life in a region of herders. Their Cushitic language has all but died out and most have intermarried with the neighbouring Samburu, leaving the group close to full assimilation. economy / society ●●

c. 1900 The high god undercut the charge of paganism 0 cit. Missionaries often arrived calling Africans pagans without knowledge of the true God. Yet most Kenyan peoples already held to a single creator above all spirits. This existing high god sat awkwardly with the missionary charge, and observers later pointed to it as evidence of a prior African belief in one God. religion / society ●●●

c. 1900 The Njuri Ncheke keep the migration story contested 0 cit. The Njuri Ncheke, the council of Meru elders, have long preserved and retold the Mbwaa migration. Scholars disagree over what it recalls. Some read a real escape from a coastal slaving power, perhaps Arab or Swahili; others see a travelling motif or a story reshaped by later contact with the Bible and the Quran. The historical core is contested. culture / religion ●●

c. 1900 Missions recast women as subordinate 0 cit. Christian missions taught a Victorian model of the family in which the man led and the woman obeyed. Mission schooling, church rules, and new ideas of respectability pressed women into a narrower domestic role and treated their older ritual and economic power as heathen. Female diviners and women's rites were condemned and pushed to the margins. The moral authority of the mission worked to shrink women's public standing. religion / society ●●

c. 1900 Sakuye split between Dabel and Isiolo areas 0 cit. The Sakuye came to live in two main groupings, a northern section around the semi-permanent settlement of Dabel and a southern section in the Isiolo area. Camels underpinned their economy, social standing and ritual life. Their small numbers left them dependent on ties with larger neighbours for grazing and protection. economy / society ●

c. 1900 Pokomo divide between Muslim upriver and Christian downriver sections 0 cit. The Pokomo came to be divided into an Upper Pokomo section, largely Muslim from the early twentieth century through Swahili and Orma contact, and a Lower Pokomo section that converted to Christianity from the late 1870s under mission influence, nearly completely by 1914. Older beliefs centred on water spirits and ancestors tied to the river's rhythms. The two faiths reshaped public life over a few generations. culture / religion ●●

c. 1900 Digo mix farming, fishing and coastal trade in Kwale 0 cit. The Digo made a living from farming coconut, cassava, maize and rice, from fishing the Indian Ocean shallows, and from trade along the Swahili coast. Kwale and the Diani coast lie at the heart of their territory, which extends across the border into Tanzania. Their economy tied the coastal hinterland to the wider ocean trading world. economy / society ●

c. 1900 Pokot split into hill farmers and plains herders as one people 0 cit. By the early colonial period the Pokot were clearly divided by way of life. Hill Pokot on the wetter Cherangani and Sekerr slopes grew sorghum and finger millet, some of it on small furrow-fed plots. Plains Pokot on the dry lowlands lived by herding cattle, goats and camels. Early observers such as Mervyn Beech noted differences in custom between the two, but stressed that they remained a single people. economy / society ●●

7 September 1901 Boxer Protocol 0 cit. Settlement imposed on China by eight powers after the Boxer Rebellion, requiring a huge indemnity, executions, and foreign garrisons in Beijing. It marked the low point of Qing sovereignty. diplomacy / politics / war ●●●

1 January 1901 Federation of Australia 0 cit. no story Six British colonies unite as the Commonwealth of Australia, creating a self-governing federation under the Crown. politics ●●●●

25 February 1901 Founding of U.S. Steel 0 cit. J.P. Morgan merges Carnegie Steel with rivals to form United States Steel, the world's first billion-dollar corporation. At its creation it produces about two thirds of American steel. economy ●●●●