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The Gulf and the oil monarchies

72 events 0 sources c. 1517 to 10 March 2023 created 19 Jul 2026, 06:38

The Arabian peninsula from the Saud-Wahhab pact through the discovery of oil, the founding of the petro-states, OPEC, and the modern hubs.

The Arabian peninsula from the Saud-Wahhab pact through the discovery of oil, the founding of the petro-states, OPEC, and the modern hubs.

Figures Abdulaziz Ibn SaudAbrahamBenjamin NetanyahuFaisal of Saudi ArabiaHamad bin Khalifa Al ThaniIbn SaudMohammed bin SalmanMubarak Al SabahWilliam SimonZayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan

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    Ottoman Conquest of the Hejaz and Holy Cities

    After defeating the Mamluks, the Ottoman Empire took control of the Hejaz and became guardian of Mecca and Medina. Ottoman suzerainty over the holy cities lasted, with interruptions, until World War I.

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    Ottoman Expansion into Eastern Arabia

    The Ottomans extended control over the Al-Hasa region on the Persian Gulf coast during the mid-sixteenth century. Ottoman authority in eastern Arabia remained weak and contested by local tribes.

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    Wahhabi-Salafi Doctrine

    Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab preached a strict, literalist reform of Islam that condemned practices he saw as idolatry and demanded a return to early sources. His teaching became the official creed of the Saudi state and a wider Salafi current.

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    The Diriyah Pact

    Muhammad ibn Saud, ruler of the oasis town of Diriyah, formed an alliance with the religious reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. The pact joined Saudi political power to Wahhabi religious doctrine and founded the First Saudi State.

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    Wahhabi Sack of Karbala

    Forces of the First Saudi State raided the Shia holy city of Karbala in Ottoman Iraq, killing many residents and looting shrines. The attack marked the expansion of Wahhabi power beyond central Arabia.

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    Wahhabi Capture of Mecca and Medina

    The First Saudi State seized the holy cities of Mecca and Medina from Ottoman control. Wahhabi forces destroyed tombs and shrines they regarded as idolatrous.

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    Ottoman-Egyptian Destruction of Diriyah

    An Egyptian army sent by the Ottoman viceroy Muhammad Ali, led by Ibrahim Pasha, captured and razed Diriyah. The campaign ended the First Saudi State and executed its leaders.

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    General Maritime Treaty of 1820

    Britain imposed a treaty on the Arab sheikhdoms of the lower Gulf to suppress piracy and the maritime slave trade. The agreement began British involvement in what became known as the Trucial Coast.

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    Founding of the Second Saudi State

    Turki ibn Abdullah recaptured Riyadh and re-established Saudi rule in Najd. Riyadh became the capital of a revived but smaller Saudi state.

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    Perpetual Maritime Truce

    The Gulf sheikhdoms signed a permanent truce with Britain ending maritime warfare among them. The states became known as the Trucial States under British naval protection.

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    Anglo-Kuwaiti Agreement

    Sheikh Mubarak Al Sabah signed a secret agreement placing Kuwait's foreign relations under British control. The pact shielded Kuwait from Ottoman claims and made it a British protectorate.

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    Ibn Saud Recaptures Riyadh

    Abdulaziz ibn Saud led a small raiding party that seized the Masmak fortress in Riyadh from the Al Rashid. The victory began the campaign to build the modern Saudi state.

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    Rise of the Ikhwan Movement

    Ibn Saud organized Bedouin tribesmen into settled Wahhabi military-religious communities called the Ikhwan. The Ikhwan became the shock troops of his conquest of Arabia.

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    Saudi Conquest of Al-Hasa

    Ibn Saud took the eastern province of Al-Hasa from the Ottomans, extending Saudi rule to the Persian Gulf coast. The region later proved to hold vast oil reserves.

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    Treaty of Darin

    Ibn Saud signed a treaty making his lands a British protectorate during World War I. Britain recognized him as ruler of Najd and provided a subsidy and arms.

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    Qatar Becomes a British Protectorate

    Sheikh Abdullah bin Jassim Al Thani signed a treaty giving Britain control of Qatar's foreign affairs in return for protection. Qatar remained a British protectorate until 1971.

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    Saudi Conquest of the Hejaz

    Saudi forces defeated Sharif Hussein of the Hashemite dynasty and captured Mecca, Jeddah, and Medina. The conquest gave Ibn Saud control of Islam's two holiest cities.

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    Treaty of Jeddah

    Britain recognized the full independence of Ibn Saud's kingdom under the Treaty of Jeddah. The treaty ended the protectorate relationship established at Darin.

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    Ikhwan Revolt and the Battle of Sabilla

    Ibn Saud crushed a rebellion by Ikhwan factions who opposed his accommodation with Britain and modern technology. The battle broke the Ikhwan as an independent military force.

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    Discovery of Oil in Bahrain

    The Bahrain Petroleum Company struck oil at Jebel Dukhan, the first commercial oil find on the Arabian side of the Gulf. The discovery proved the peninsula held oil and spurred exploration in Saudi Arabia.

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    Discovery of the Burgan Field in Kuwait

    The Kuwait Oil Company discovered the Burgan field, one of the largest oil fields ever found. Kuwait's oil made it among the wealthiest states per capita after production began.

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    Oil Struck at Dammam No. 7

    After years of dry wells, the Dammam No. 7 well came in as a commercial gusher, proving Saudi Arabia's vast reserves. The find transformed the kingdom's finances and future.

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    Creation of the Arabian American Oil Company

    The California Arabian Standard Oil Company was renamed the Arabian American Oil Company, known as Aramco. It became the largest oil producer in the world and the core of Saudi wealth.

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    Fifty-Fifty Profit Sharing Agreement

    Saudi Arabia and Aramco agreed to split oil profits evenly, sharply raising the kingdom's revenue. Similar deals spread across the Gulf and shifted the balance toward producer states.

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    Death of King Abdulaziz ibn Saud

    The founder of Saudi Arabia died after ruling for over two decades. His many sons would succeed one another as kings into the twenty-first century.

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    Origins of Gulf Sovereign Wealth

    Kuwait created the Kuwait Investment Board to invest oil surpluses abroad, the earliest sovereign wealth fund. Its model of banking oil income for future generations spread across the Gulf.

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    Founding of OPEC

    also in The world trade and money order

    Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela found the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries at a conference in Baghdad to coordinate oil policies against the dominance of Western oil companies.

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    Kuwaiti Independence

    Kuwait ended its protectorate treaty with Britain and became fully independent. Iraq immediately claimed the territory, prompting a British and later Arab League deployment.

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    First Abu Dhabi Oil Exports

    Abu Dhabi began exporting oil after offshore and onshore discoveries in the late 1950s and early 1960s. Oil revenue funded the emirate's rise and later the wider federation.

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    Discovery of Oil in Dubai

    Dubai found oil at the offshore Fateh field, with exports beginning in 1969. Its modest reserves pushed Dubai to diversify early into trade and services.

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    British Withdrawal East of Suez Announced

    The British government announced it would withdraw military forces from the Persian Gulf and Asia by the end of 1971. The decision forced the Gulf protectorates to prepare for independence.

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    Qaboos Seizes Power in Oman

    Qaboos bin Said deposed his father in a British-backed palace coup and began modernizing the isolated sultanate. His long reign opened Oman to development while keeping it neutral in regional disputes.

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    Bahraini Independence

    Bahrain declared independence from Britain after a UN survey found its people favored sovereignty over Iranian claims. It was the first Gulf state to develop oil and later hosted the US Fifth Fleet.

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    Qatari Independence

    Qatar became independent after the end of its British protectorate. The small peninsula would later leverage vast natural gas reserves to become one of the world's richest states.

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    Founding of the United Arab Emirates

    Six of the former Trucial States federated into the United Arab Emirates as Britain withdrew; Ras al-Khaimah joined in 1972. Sheikh Zayed of Abu Dhabi became the federation's first president.

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    The Petrodollar Arrangement

    The United States and Saudi Arabia agreed to economic and military cooperation under which oil was priced in dollars and surplus revenue was recycled into US assets. The arrangement tied Gulf oil wealth to American finance and security guarantees.

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    Founding of the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority

    Abu Dhabi established a state fund to manage its oil surplus, which grew into one of the largest sovereign wealth funds in the world. Such funds turned Gulf oil income into global financial power.

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    Seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca

    Armed militants led by Juhayman al-Otaybi seized the Grand Mosque and held it for two weeks, denouncing the monarchy as corrupt. The shock pushed the Saudi state toward stricter religious policies at home and abroad.

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    Opening of Jebel Ali Port and Free Zone

    Dubai opened the giant Jebel Ali port, later adding a free trade zone that drew foreign firms. The project anchored Dubai's shift from oil toward trade, logistics, and services.

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    Second Oil Shock

    The Iranian Revolution disrupted oil supply and sent world prices to new highs. The shock brought another surge of revenue into the Gulf monarchies.

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    Iran-Iraq War

    Iraq invaded Iran, beginning an eight-year war that the Gulf Arab states largely financed on Iraq's side. The conflict deepened rivalries and drove the founding of a Gulf security bloc.

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    Nationalization of Saudi Aramco

    Saudi Arabia completed its gradual acquisition of Aramco, taking full ownership from its American partners. State control over the world's largest oil company gave the kingdom direct command of its main asset.

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    Gulf War

    Iraq invades Kuwait and a US-led coalition of 35 nations expels it in a six-week campaign. The war establishes American military dominance in the post-Cold War Middle East.

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    Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait

    Iraq under Saddam Hussein invaded and annexed Kuwait, seizing its oil fields. The invasion triggered a global crisis and a US-led military response.

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    Khobar Towers bombing

    also in The age of terror

    A truck bomb destroyed part of the Khobar Towers housing complex used by US forces, killing 19 American Air Force personnel and wounding hundreds.

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    Launch of Al Jazeera

    Qatar launched the Al Jazeera satellite channel, which broke the state-media mold across the Arab world. Its coverage gave the small emirate outsized regional influence and irritated its neighbors.

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    The Gulf and the September 11 Attacks

    Fifteen of the nineteen hijackers in the attacks on the United States were Saudi citizens, straining ties with Washington. The event intensified scrutiny of Gulf funding for extremist networks.

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    Opening of the Burj Khalifa

    Dubai opened the Burj Khalifa, the tallest building in the world, as a symbol of its transformation into a global hub. The tower capped a construction boom that made the city a center for tourism and finance.

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    Bahrain Uprising of the Arab Spring

    Mass protests in Bahrain, led largely by the Shia majority, demanded political reform from the Sunni monarchy. The uprising was the most serious Arab Spring challenge to a Gulf state.

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    Peninsula Shield Intervention in Bahrain

    Saudi Arabia and the UAE sent GCC forces into Bahrain to help crush the protests. The intervention showed the Gulf monarchies' resolve to prevent unrest from spreading.

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    Announcement of Saudi Vision 2030

    Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman unveiled a plan to diversify Saudi Arabia's economy away from oil and loosen some social restrictions. The program included giant projects, tourism, and reduced clerical influence.

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    The Qatar Blockade

    Saudi Arabia, the UAE, Bahrain, and Egypt cut ties and imposed a land, sea, and air blockade on Qatar, accusing it of backing extremists and Iran. The rift split the GCC until reconciliation in 2021.

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    Mohammed bin Salman Named Crown Prince

    King Salman named his son Mohammed bin Salman as heir, concentrating power in the young prince. He drove sweeping economic and social change alongside a crackdown on dissent.

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    End of the Saudi Women's Driving Ban

    Saudi Arabia lifted its ban on women driving, one of the most visible reforms under Vision 2030. The change came alongside continued detention of some activists who had campaigned for it.

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    Killing of Jamal Khashoggi

    Saudi agents killed the journalist Jamal Khashoggi inside the Saudi consulate in Istanbul. The murder damaged the kingdom's image and its relations with Western governments.

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    Qatar Hosts the FIFA World Cup

    Qatar became the first Arab and Gulf state to host the football World Cup, after years of spending and scrutiny over labor conditions. The tournament showcased the country's wealth and ambition on a global stage.

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    Saudi-Iran Détente

    Saudi Arabia and Iran agreed to restore diplomatic relations in a deal brokered by China. The agreement eased years of rivalry and signaled a growing Chinese role in Gulf affairs.

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