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  1. 1494 War (1494) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 8–1789 (Manchester, 1982). On navies, see Reynolds, Command of the Sea, chs. 6–9; Kennedy, Rise and Fall of British Naval Mastery, chs. 3–5; Padfield, Tide of Empires, vol. 2. 3. ●●
  2. 1494 Economic (1494) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story rope, vol. 3 (1976), pp. 22–76; NCMH, vol. 8, p. 714; B. R. Mitchell, European Historical Statistics, 1750–1970 (London, 1975), pt. A; W. Woodruff, Impact of Western Man: A Study o ●●
  3. 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas grants Portugal claim to Brazil ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When the Treaty of Tordesillas in 1494 gave Portugal possession of what would become Brazil, this system of labor would prove to be exportable. ●●
  4. 1495 Series of Italian military campaigns over twenty years rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Major Italian battles occurred in sequence: Il Taro (1495), Alessandria (1499), Capua (1501), Genoa (1507), Vaila (1509), Bologna (1511), Mestri (1513). ●●
  5. 1497 Event rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama sailed in 1497 around Af rica to India. There he encountered the Indian Ocean merchant networks run by Gujaratis, Arabs, Malays, Chinese, and ... ●●
  6. 1498 Oceanic pressure of the West on Asia, 1498 to 1956 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley traces Western Civilization's seaborne pressure on Asia from Vasco da Gama reaching India in 1498, through Japan's surrender aboard the Missouri in 1945, to the Anglo-French attack on Suez in 1956. ●●
  7. 1498 Event of 1498 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ceylon, China, and Indonesia, and Hindu art and statecraft influenced Thailand, Indochina, and beyond. When divided—as it often was—into competing kingdoms, India was a lure for invaders, traders, and spiritual seekers (some fulfilling multiple roles ●●
  8. 1499 Louis XII marries Anne of Brittany ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Louis XII divorced his first wife and married Anne of Brittany in 1499 to retain the Duchy of Brittany for the French crown. ●●
  9. 1500 Total imports of people to the Americas from rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Total imports of people to the Americas from Africa had been below l,ooo per year in 1500, but passed rn,ooo per year in 1600 and stayed over 60,000 f... ●●
  10. 1500 1The Rise of the Western World In the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1The Rise of the Western World In the year 1500, the date chosen by numerous scholars to mark the divide between modern and premodern times,1 it was by no means obvious to the inhabitants of Europe th ●●
  11. 1500 A fuller discussion of that specific Habsburg attempt rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After all, would not the forces possessed by the new monarchies in 1500 have seemed puny if they had been deployed against the enormous armies of the sultan and the massed troops of the Ming Empire? T ●●
  12. 1500 The Meaning and Chronology of the Struggle Although rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The second reason for the much more widespread and interlinked pattern of warfare after 1500 was the creation of a dynastic combination, that of the Habsburgs, to form a network of territories which s ●●
  13. 1500 Introduction This is a book about national and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story It also concerns itself with tracing the changes which have occurred in the global economic balances since 1500; and yet it is not, at least directly, a work of economic history. What it concentrates ●●
  14. 1500 The Muslim World Even the first of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Not only were the Ottoman Turks pushing westward, but the Safavid dynasty in Persia was also enjoying a resurgence of power, prosperity, and high culture, especially in the reigns of Ismail I (1500–15 ●●
  15. 1500 But perhaps the most important act of “rationalization” rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story What historians refer to as the “Vasco da Gama epoch” and the “Columbian era”—that is, the three or four centuries of European hegemony after 1500—was a very gradual process. Portuguese explorers migh ●●
  16. 1500 2The Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 By the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story For about a century and a half after 1500, a continent-wide combination of kingdoms, duchies, and provinces ruled by the Spanish and Austrian members of the Habsburg family threatened to become the pr ●●
  17. 1500 It was these spiraling costs of war which rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The general inflation, which saw food prices rise fivefold and industrial prices threefold between 1500 and 1630, was a heavy enough blow to government finances; but this was compounded by the doublin ●●
  18. 1500 Reform (1500) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story polla, Before the Industrial Revolution, pp. 276–96; D. C. Coleman, The Economy of England 1450–1750 (Oxford, 1977); B. Murphy, A History of the British Economy (London, 1973), pt. ●●
  19. 1500 Revolution (1500) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story nce française, passim; and Hatton (ed.), Louis XIV and Europe, passim. 45. L. Andre, Michel Le Tellier et Louvois (Paris, 1943 edn.); C. Jones, “The Military Revolution and the Pr ●●
  20. 1500 War (1500) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story .F.R. Crafts, “Industrial Revolution in England and France: Some Thoughts on the Question: ‘Why was England First?’ ” Economic History Review, 2nd series, vol. 30 (1977), pp. 429–4 ●●
  21. 1500 Information history in 1500 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story tablets and stone, descend from the same original ancestor, which arose near the eastern littoral of the Mediterranean Sea, sometime not much before 1500 BCE, in a region that became a politically uns ●●
  22. 1501 Safavid dynasty makes Shiism Iran's state religion ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Safavid dynasty is established with Ismail proclaimed as shah, solidifying Shiite Islam as the dominant religion in Iran. ●●
  23. 1501 War (1501) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Soviet Foreign Policy After Stalin. Philadelphia, 1961. Daniels, R.V. Russia, The Roots of Confrontation. Cambridge, Mass., 1985. Darby, H.C., “The Face of Europe on the Eve of t ●●
  24. 1501 Oliverotto da Fermo seizes Fermo by murder ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Oliverotto da Fermo murdered the city chiefs and seized power, ruling securely for one year before being captured by Cesare Borgia. ●●
  25. 1501 Event of 1501 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ER 2: THE EUROPEAN BALANCE-OF-POWER SYSTEM AND ITS END “A monstrous compound of the petty refinements”: Marquis de Custine, Empire of the Czar: A Journey Through Eternal Russia (1843; New York: Anchor Books, 1990), 69. “the sole Emperor of all the Ch ●●
  26. 1502 Event rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Muslims of Granada were initially allowed to keep their faith, but after 1502 they were ordered to convert or leave the region. Occasional rebellions and endemic warfare with t... ●●
  27. 1502 Francisco Pizarro arrives in the New World ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The illegitimate son of a Spanish colonel crossed the Atlantic to seek his fortune, beginning his exploration of South America and search for precious metals. ●●
  28. 1502 Cesare Borgia traps the Orsini at Sinigaglia ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Cesare Borgia through deception reconciled the Orsini, bringing them into his power at Sinigaglia on December 31, 1502, then eliminated the leaders. ●●
  29. 1503 Pope Alexander VI dies of fever ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pope Alexander VI died of fever on August 18, 1503, removing crucial papal support for his son Cesare Borgia's ambitions. ●●
  30. 1505 Lefevre combines Pimander and Asclepius with commentary ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Lefevre brought Ficino's Pimander and the Asclepius together in one volume with his own critical commentary condemning magical passages. ●●
  31. 1505 Cardinal Ximenes burns Arabic manuscripts in Granada ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Blavatsky, citing Professor Draper, records the burning of eighty thousand Arabic manuscripts by Cardinal Ximenes in the squares of Granada—an act she presents as an example of Christian destruction of ancient knowledge. ●●
  32. 1506 Pope Julius II marches on Bologna ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pope Julius II mounted his first military enterprise against Bologna while Giovanni Bentivogli still held the city, through characteristic boldness. ●●
  33. 1507 Champier publishes De Quadruplici Vita ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Symphorien Champier of Lyons published De Quadruplici Vita, imitating Ficino's work but rejecting talismanic magic. ●●
  34. 1509 Jews seek refuge in Venice ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Jews from Mestre sought refuge in Venice during the War of the League of Cambrai, beginning a notable Jewish presence in the city. ●●
  35. 1509 War (1509) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story r Regime (Oxford, 1979), espec. chs. 2 and 9. On the crown’s finances, see the older work F. C. Dietz, English Public Finance 1485–1641, vol. 1, English Government Finance 1485–155 ●●
  36. 1509 Venetian mercenary captains suffer defeats candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Venetian forces under various mercenary captains met repeated defeats, most notably at Vaila in 1509, losing accumulated territories. ●●
  37. 1510 Dean Colet founds St. Paul's grammar school ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Gatto references the reformed Latin grammar school founded by Dean Colet at St. Paul's in London in 1510, an example he says school histories misread. ●●
  38. 1513 But political and fiscal stability did not necessarily rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story However, this backwardness did not keep his successor, Henry VIII, from campaigning against the Scots or even deter his interventions of 1513 and 1522–1523 against France, since the English king could ●●
  39. 1513 Machiavelli writes The Prince ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Machiavelli wrote The Prince around 1513, a foundational work of political philosophy dedicated to Lorenzo di Medici. ●●
  40. 1514 Franciscan preaching sparks Hungarian peasant revolt ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Maverick Franciscan preachers inspire crusade in Hungary that turns into violent social uprising with impaling. ●●
  41. 1515 150) taxes; to Church; discriminatory; see also tithe teetotalism: see temperance television rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 150) taxes; to Church; discriminatory; see also tithe teetotalism: see temperance television and televangelists temperance and teetotalism; see also Prohibition Templars (Knights Templar) temples; Chinese; Greek; Japanese; Roman; see also Jerusalem T ●●
  42. 1516 Venice establishes the Jewish ghetto ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Venetian authorities designated a special walled area for Jews on the site of an old iron foundry, confining residents every night and on Christian holidays. ●●
  43. 1516 War (1516) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story hree relevant volumes of Fontana History of Europe: G. R. Elton, Reformation Europe 1517–1559 (London, 1963); J. H. Elliott, Europe Divided 1559–1598 (London, 1968); and G. Parker, ●●
  44. 1517 Luther's revolt against papal indulgences ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The first of these was the coming of the Reformation—sparked off by Martin Luther’s personal revolt against papal indulgences in 1517—which swiftly added a fierce new dimension to the traditional dyna ●●
  45. 1517 Reform (1517) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 1970. ______. Richelieu and Olivares. Cambridge, 1984. ______. The Count-Duke of Olivares. New Haven, Conn., 1986. Elton, G.R., ed. The New Cambridge Modern History, vol. ii, T ●●
  46. 1517 War (1517) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story WOThe Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 1. C. Oman, A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (London, 1937), p. 3. For the earlier wars, see idem, A History of the A ●●
  47. 1517 17: A House Divided (1517-1660) 1 Scholarly argument (and, for what it rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 17: A House Divided (1517-1660) 1 Scholarly argument (and, for what it is worth, my own opinion) sways on the fascinating but ultimately trivial question of whether the theses were actually nailed up on the door; Philipp Melanchthon asserted in 1546 ●●
  48. 1519 2The Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 By the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 2The Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 By the sixteenth century, then, the power struggles within Europe were also helping it to rise, economically and militarily, above the other regions of the glo ●●
  49. 1519 Contents Cover Title Page Copyright Dedication Acknowledgmen rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Habsburg Bid for Mastery, 1519–1659 The Meaning and Chronology of the Struggle Strengths and Weaknesses of the Habsburg Bloc International Comparisons War, Money, and the Nation-State Chapter 3. F ●●
  50. 1519 3Finance, Geography, and the Winning of Wars, 1660–1815 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Nevertheless, the chief characteristic of the 1519–1659 era—that is, an Austro-Spanish axis of Habsburg powers fighting a coalition of Protestant states, plus France—now disappeared, and was replaced ●●
  51. 1519 Revolution (1519) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ______. The Campaigns of Napoleon. New York, 1966. Chaunu, P. European Expansion in the Later Middle Ages. Amsterdam, 1979. Childs, J. Armies and Warfare in Europe 1648-1789. Man ●●
  52. 1519 War (1519) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story d cf. A. G. Frank, World Accumulation 1492–1789 (New York/London, 1978), pp. 137ff. 36. See again Mendelsohn, Science and Western Domination, which stresses the importance of scie ●●
  53. 1519 Event of 1519 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ule; except for a widely noted taste for spiced food, he was generally perceived to be without vices and immune to distraction. He inherited the crown of the Netherlands as a child and that of Spain—with its vast and expanding array of colonies in As ●●
  54. 1520 Reform (1520) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story t, J.H. Europe Divided 1559-1598. London, 1968. ______. Imperial Spain 1469-1716. Harmondsworth, Mddsx., 1970. ______. Richelieu and Olivares. Cambridge, 1984. ______. The Count ●●
  55. 1520 Defeat of Comunero revolt centralizes Spanish power ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Spanish monarch, beginning with the defeat of the Comunero revolt in 1520, emasculated the Spanish estates (the Cortes) and centralized power in the court. ●●
  56. 1521 Event of 1521 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story grise, a label ever thereafter applied to shadowy figures of influence in the history of diplomacy. Aldous Huxley, Grey Eminence: A Study in Religion and Politics (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941). Machiavelli’s treatises on statesmanship: See, f ●●
  57. 1522 But political and fiscal stability did not necessarily rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story However, this backwardness did not keep his successor, Henry VIII, from campaigning against the Scots or even deter his interventions of 1513 and 1522–1523 against France, since the English king could ●●
  58. 1522 Name 'America' first appears on Basle map ai_extracted 1 cit. no story A map was published at Basle in 1522 where the name 'America' appeared for the first time, marking the geographical recognition of the newly discovered continent. ●●
  59. 1523 But political and fiscal stability did not necessarily rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story However, this backwardness did not keep his successor, Henry VIII, from campaigning against the Scots or even deter his interventions of 1513 and 1522–1523 against France, since the English king could ●●
  60. 1524 Pizarro's first expedition into Peru ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pizarro led the first of three expeditions into Peru, encountering harsh terrain and hostile indigenous peoples. ●●
  61. 1524 The Muslim World Even the first of the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Not only were the Ottoman Turks pushing westward, but the Safavid dynasty in Persia was also enjoying a resurgence of power, prosperity, and high culture, especially in the reigns of Ismail I (1500–15 ●●
  62. 1525 Albert of Brandenburg declares Prussia a secular kingdom ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Tracing Prussia's origins, Gatto notes that the Order of Teutonic Knights evolved into a secular civil service. In 1525 Albert of Brandenburg declared Prussia a secular kingdom. ●●
  63. 1526 Ottoman Empire at its peak, 1526-1533 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Ottoman Empire reached its height in 1526-1533 with the conquest of Hungary and the first siege of Vienna; a second, also failed, siege came in 1683. ●●
  64. 1526 Revolution (1526) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story mhaber, Merchants Make History (London, 1963), ch. 8; and see the broad recent survey by G. Parker, “The Emergence of Modern Finance in Europe 1500–1730,” in Cipolla (ed.), Fontana ●●
  65. 1526 War (1526) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story of Germany (Hamden, Conn., 1975), passim; Dupuy, Genius for War, chs. 4–6; NCMH, vol. 10, The Zenith of European Power 1830–70, chs. 12 and 19; L. H. Addington, The Patterns of Wa ●●
  66. 1526 Event of 1526 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story of privilege by a magnanimous Sultan. When the Ottomans had reached the limits of their military capabilities, both sides occasionally found themselves drawn into alignments with each other for tactical advantage. Strategic and commercial interests o ●●
  67. 1526 Engel, The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Engel, The Realm of St Stephen: A History of Medieval Hungary, 895-1526 (London and New York, 2001), 101-3 ●●
  68. 1529 Given the imbalance in forces between France and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Much the most formidable of these were the Turks, who not only had expanded across the Hungarian plain in the 1520s (and were besieging Vienna in 1529), but also posed a naval threat against Italy and ●●
  69. 1529 Strengths and Weaknesses of the Habsburg Bloc Why rejected unproven ai_extracted 1 cit. no story As its historian notes, “there is no evidence that any one state fielded more than 30,000 effectives” in the Franco-Spanish struggle for Italy before 1529; but: In 1536–7 the Emperor Charles V mobiliz ●●
  70. 1529 War (1529) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ec. chs. 2 and 7. 70. R. Ashton, The English Civil War: Conservatism and Revolution 1603–1649 (London, 1979); C. Hill, The Century of Revolution 1603–1714 (Edinburgh, 1961), pt. 1 ●●
  71. 1530 Pizarro's third expedition departs Panama ai_extracted 1 cit. no story After obtaining royal approval, Pizarro sailed from Panama with a small force of ships, horses and men equipped with European weaponry. ●●
  72. 1530 Moses Cordovero's Leadership in Safed candidate ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Moses Cordovero becomes leading Kabbalist in Safed, systematizing Kabbalah into coherent mystical philosophy ●●
  73. 1532 Event of 1532 rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story he history of diplomacy. Aldous Huxley, Grey Eminence: A Study in Religion and Politics (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1941). Machiavelli’s treatises on statesmanship: See, for example, Niccolò Machiavelli, The Art of War (1521), Discourses on the F ●●
  74. 1536 Manco Capac revolts against Spanish rule ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Despite being installed as a puppet Inca, Manco Capac led a major revolt against Spanish control, though Spanish rule remained unshaken. ●●
  75. 1536 Erasmus dies in Basel ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Humanist scholar Erasmus dies on visit to Basel, seeing his pan-European humanist project overshadowed by Luther's rebellion. ●●
  76. 1540 o nsx (1540) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 9 maw oowNM Ty 33P }o nsx (1540) eaaysoo w’m mown. min wos poynnd mains Miwamotw ...b?3Hup} 0°59T73 ●●
  77. 1541 Assassination of Francisco Pizarro in Lima ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Pizarro was stabbed to death in Lima after a quarrel with a fellow conquistador, ending the life of the conqueror of the Inca Empire. ●●
  78. 1542 Britain's first bankruptcy law ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Britain passed its first bankruptcy law in 1542. ●●
  79. 1542 Given the imbalance in forces between France and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Much the most formidable of these were the Turks, who not only had expanded across the Hungarian plain in the 1520s (and were besieging Vienna in 1529), but also posed a naval threat against Italy and ●●
  80. 1543 The horse reaches the Plains Indians, 1543 ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Quigley notes that in 1543 the horse began spreading north from the Spanish in Mexico, transforming the Plains Indians' way of life within a century. ●●
  81. 1543 What made this inadequacy absolutely certain was the rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Even by the later stages of Charles V’s reign, therefore, government revenues had been mortgaged for years in advance; in 1543, 65 percent of ordinary revenue had to be spent paying interest on the ju ●●
  82. 1545 Silver discovered at Cerro Rico ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Diego Gualpa discovered five great seams of silver in the mountain of Cerro Rico, fundamentally changing the economic history of the world. ●●
  83. 1546 17: A House Divided (1517-1660) 1 Scholarly argument (and, for what it rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 17: A House Divided (1517-1660) 1 Scholarly argument (and, for what it is worth, my own opinion) sways on the fascinating but ultimately trivial question of whether the theses were actually nailed up on the door; Philipp Melanchthon asserted in 1546 ●●
  84. 1547 khans' overlord ship, so critical to Moscow's ascent, rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The khans' overlord ship, so critical to Moscow's ascent, was turned into the "Tatar yoke." you, Orthodox princes and boyars, strive to show beneficen... ●●
  85. 1547 Ferdinand cedes his Hungary claim to Suleiman ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Charles and his brother Ferdinand, the Habsburg king ofAustria, and Sulei man fought bitterly over Hungary, and in 1547 Ferdinand had to give up his claim to become king of Hungary... ●●
  86. 1547 Given the imbalance in forces between France and rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story When he did so, he was at first quite successful, especially by defeating the armies of the leading Protestant princes at the battle of Mühlberg (1547). But any enhancement of Habsburg and imperial au ●●
  87. 1547 Revolution (1547) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Ness, P. Revolution and Chinese Foreign Policy. Berkeley, Calif., 1971. Varg, P.A. Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats … 1890-1952. Princeton, N.J., 1952. Vatter, H.G. The Drive ●●
  88. 1548 Giordano Bruno born in Nola ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Giordano Bruno was born in Nola, a small town on the slopes of Mount Vesuvius. ●●
  89. 1550 Ivan IV convenes Council of the Land, issues law code ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Earlier, in 1550, after convening a kuriltai-like " Council of the Land," the tsar issued a new law code setting forth the right of every subj ect to... ●●
  90. 1550 War (1550) rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story rial Revolution, ch. 6; P. S. Crowson, Tudor Foreign Policy (London, 1973), ch. 25. 66. K. R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering (Cambridge, 1964); indem, Trade, Plunder and Settle ●●
  91. 1550 How was one to conceive of the inhabitants of regions no one had known existed rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story lementation determined. A revolution of thinking about the nature of the political universe followed. How was one to conceive of the inhabitants of regions no one had known existed? How did they fit into the medieval cosmology of empire and papacy? A ●●
  92. 1550 Isaac Luria develops Lurianic Kabbalah ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Isaac Luria develops revolutionary system with doctrines of Tsimtsum, Shevirah, and Tikkun reshaping Jewish mysticism ●●
  93. 1551 50 Commentary on Isaiah (published 1551), 211, qu rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story 50 Commentary on Isaiah (published 1551), 211, qu ●●
  94. 1552 It was these spiraling costs of war which rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story His 1552 campaign at Metz cost 2.5 million ducats alone—about ten times the emperor’s normal income from the Americas at that time. Not surprisingly, he was driven repeatedly to raise fresh loans, but ●●
  95. 1555 ich demanded that Protestant sovereigns restore al... rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story ich demanded that Protestant sovereigns restore all the lands they had seized from the Church since 1555. ●●
  96. 1555 Peace of Augsburg legalizes Protestantism ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Peace of Augsburg between Habsburgs and Protestants grants legal recognition to Protestant faith. ●●
  97. 1556 Death rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Charles's abdication in 1556 did not change this contestation over Rome's former empire in the west. Suleiman died on a final campaign in Hungary in 1566; his armies triumphed ther... ●●
  98. 1557 Spain's first sovereign default ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Spain defaulted on its debt between 1557 and 1696, demonstrating that abundant precious metal could not make a nation a secure credit risk. ●●
  99. 1557 International Comparisons Yet this Habsburg failure, it is rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story The Italian wars, besides repeatedly showing how short-lived and disastrous were the French efforts to gain influence in that peninsula (even when allied with Venice or the Turks), were also very expe ●●
  100. 1557 But perhaps the most important act of “rationalization” rejected ai_extracted 1 cit. no story Since the Chinese government had voluntarily turned its back upon maritime trade, it did not really care if that commerce fell into the hands of the barbarians; even the quasi-official trading post wh ●●